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AMERICAN  DRAWING-BOOK: 

A 

MANUAL  FOR  THE  AMATEUR, 


BASIS  OF  STUDY  FOR  THE  PROFESSIONAL  ARTIST 

ESPECIALLY  ADAPTED 


TO  THE  USE  OF  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS,  AS  WELL  AS  HOME  INSTRUCTION. 


BY 

J.  G.  CHAPMAN,  N.  A. 


A NEW  EDITION,  CAREFULLY  REVISED  AND  CORRECTED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


“Any  one  who  can  learn  to  write,  can  learn  to  draw." 


KEW  YORK: 

A.  S.  BARNES  & CO.,  PUBLISHERS, 

111  & 113  WILLIAM  STREET. 

1 8 7 0. 


;■  ° 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1847, 


By  JOHN  G.  CHAPMAN 

in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870, 

By  JOHN  G.  CHAPMAN, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


STEREOTYPED  BY  REDEIELD  & SAVAOE, 
13  Chambers  Street,  N Y 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  II. 


“ ANY  ONE  WHO  CAN  LEARN  TO  WRITE,  CAN  LEARN  TO 
DRAW.” 

Universal  Utility  of  a Capacity  for  Drawing. — Ease  with 
which  it  may  be  acquired.  — Requirement  of  a more 
General  Appreciation  of  the  Advantages  to  be  derived 
from  its  Cultivation page  3 

CHAPTER  I. 

PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS  IN  DRAWING. 

1.  Facility  of  Hand  one  of  the  first  Requisites  in  Draw- 
ing. — Means  by  which  it  may  be  acquired.  — 2 to  11. 

Of  Straight  Lines.  — 3,  35.  Importance  of  Early  In- 
struction. — 4.  Drawing  Copy-Books  for  Schools,  etc. 

— 12,  15,  16,  17.  Of  Rectangular  forms.  — 13, 14,  15. 
Practical  Hints  with  regard  to  producing  Tints,  etc., 
by  Lines.  — 19.  Importance  of  Clearness  and  Decis- 
ion of  Line.  — 20,  21,  22.  Of  Curved  Lines.  — 23. 

The  Black-Board.  — 24.  Giotto.  — 25.  Inclination  in 
Young  Persons  for  Design  should  be  encouraged.  — 

26,  29,  30.  Of  Figures  formed  by  Curved  Lines.  — 31. 

An  Equal  Degree  of  Excellence  can  not  be  reasonably 
expected  in  all  who  attempt  to  learn  to  draw.  — 32,  33. 
Drawing  from  Nature.  — 34.  Affectation  of  Manner 
to  be  avoided. — 36.  Drawing-Materials.  — 37,  39.  The 
Pen.  — 40.  Ink.  — 41.  Sepia. — 42  to  45.  Pencils, 
u etc. — 46  Crayons.  — 47,48.  Advice  to  Learners  . . 11 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING  THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 

50,  51.  Introductory  Observations  on  Drawing  the  Hu- 
man Head.  — 52,  53,  54.  Of  the  Features.  — 55.  Their 
Proportions,  etc.  — 56,  61,  62,  63.  Of  the  Head  in 
Profile.  — 57,  58,  64,  67.  Of  the  Applicability  of  the 
Oval,  etc.,  as  a Basis  for  Drawing  the  Head.  — 59.  Im- 
portance of  Anatomical  Knowledge. — 60.  Theory  and 
Practice  should  go  together.  — 64,  65.  Of  the  Full 
Face.  — 66.  Application  of  the  Laws  of  Perspective 
in  Drawing  the  Head.  — 67.  Of  a Three-Quarter 
View  of  the  Face. — 68,  69.  Of  the  Central  Line. — 
Of  General  Impressions.  — 70.  Study  of  Nature  . . . 

CHAPTER  III. 

RUDIMENTS  IN  DRAWING  THE  HUMAN  FIGURE. 

71  to  75.  Introductory  Observations  on  Drawing  the  Hu- 
man Figure.  — 76,  77,  78,  83.  Of  the  Foot.  — 79.  Stu- 
dy and  Accuracy  more  important  than  Expedition  or 
Quantity.  — 80.  Practice  essential  to  Success.  — 83, 
84.  Applicability  of  General  Principles  to  Subordi- 
nate Parts  and  Details.  — 85.  The  Best  Models. — 86. 
Of  the  Antique  Standard  of  Beauty. — 87.  Of  Out- 
line, Shadows,  etc.  — 88,  89.  The  Hand.  — 90  to  94. 
Of  the  Whole  Figure.  — 95,  96.  Its  Proportions. — 

97.  Proportions  of  some  of  the  Antique  Statues.  — 

98.  Of  the  Figure  from  Infancy  to  Manhood 


59 


CONTENTS. 


vi  • 

• • 

• • 

• • 

CHAPTER  IV. 

RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 

99  to  102.  Of  Method,  or  Manner. — T03.  Sketches. — 

104,  105.  Not  suitable  Subjects  of  Imitation  for  Be- 
ginners.— 106,  107.  Trees  and  Foliage.  — 108.  Any 
Writing-Master  may  be  an  efficient  Teacher  of  Draw- 
ing.— 109.  Of  Penmanship.  — 110.  Drawing  and 
v Writing  should  be  taught  together.  — 112.  A Progres- 
sive Course  of  Study  most  advantageous.  — 113.  Per- 
sonal Exertion  on  the  Part  of  the  Learner  requisite 
for  Success.  — 114.  Inexpediency  of  Coertion. — 

115.  Privileges  and  Enjoyments  of  the  Art-Student.  — 

116.  Conclusion  of  the  Subject  of  Primary  Instruction 

in  Drawing page  91 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 

The  Relation  of  Geometry  to  Perspective.  — Definitions : 

I.  A Point.  — 2.  A Line.  — 3.  A Straight  or  Right 
Line.  — 4.  A Curved  or  Crooked  Line.  — 5.  A Circle. 

6.  A Radius.  — 7.  Circumference  of  a Circle.  — 8.  Its 
Divisions.  — 9.  Angles. — 10.  Horizontal  Lines. — 

II.  Verticals. — 12.  Triangles. — 13.  The  Square. — 

14.  Rectangles.  — 15.  Polygons.  — 16.  An  Ellipse. — 

17.  Tangents.  — 18.  To  draw  Parallel  Lines.  — 19  to 
22.  Perpendiculars,  etc.  — 23.  Triangles.  — 24.  A 
Square.  — 25.  Parallelograms.  — 26.  To  find  the  Cen- 
tre of  a Circle,  etc.  — 27,  28.  To  draw  Tangents.  — 

29.  To  draw  within  a Circle  an  Equilateral  Triangle, 
Hexagon,  etc.  — 30.  Like  Figures  without  the  Circle. 


31.  To  draw  a Square  within  a Circle.  — 32.  A Pen- 
tagon.— 33.  An  Ellipse.  — 34,  35,  36.  Importance  of 
Ability  to  do  without  Instruments 113 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PERSPECTIVE. 

37.  Perspective,  a Science  and  an  Art.  — 38.  Aerial  and 
Linear.  — 39.  Importance  of  proper  Practical  Direc- 
tion in  its  Study.  — 40.  The  Point  of  Sight.  — 41,  42. 
Line  of  the  Horizon  — Base-Line  — Distance,  etc.  — 
43.  Elementary  Principles.  — 44.  Their  further  Illus- 
tration.— 45.  Frequent  Error  in  Relation  to  the  Point 


of  Sight,  etc.  — 46,  47.  Practical  Exemplification  in 
Relation  to  the  Line  of  the  Horizon  and  Point  of 
Sight.  — 48.  Parallel  and  Oblique  Perspective.  — 49. 
Geometrical  Illustration  of  Principles.  — 50.  To  place 
a Square  in  Perspective.  — 51,  52.  A Cube,  etc.  — 53, 

54.  Further  Exemplification  of  the  Practical  Service 
of  the  Square,  and  (55  to  62)  of  Rules  and  Principles. 

— 63,  64,  65.  Of  the  Point  of  Distance.  — 66,  67,  68. 
Method  for  working  Points  of  Distance,  etc.,  which 
are  beyond  the  Limits  of  the  Picture.  — 69,  70.  Im- 
portance of  a Knowledge  of  Perspective  to  Artists. — 

71.  Geometrical  Perspective  Drawing.  — 72.  A Point. 

73.  A Line.  — 74.  A Triangle,  or  Irregular  Figure. 

— 75.  Perpendicular  Line  or  Figure.  — 76.  A Circle, 

Cylinder,  Cone,  etc.  — 77, 78.  Circular  Forms,  Arches, 
etc.  — 79.  Irregular  Curves  and  Forms.  — 80,  81. 
Doors,  etc.  — 82,  83.  Planes  and  Figures  which  are 
neither  Horizontal  nor  Perpendicular.  — 84,  85.  Gen- 
eral Observations  on  Principles  involved  in  the  Practi- 
cal Application  of  the  Rules  of  Perspective.  — 86  to 
89.  To  draw  Steps,  etc.,  perspectively.  — 90.  Shad- 
ows.— 91.  Reflected  Objects,  etc page  125 

CHAPTER  VII. 

OF  STUDYING  AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 

1.  The  Difference  considered. — 2,  3.  Aptness  in  Sketch- 
ing not  to  be  too  much  relied  upon.  — 4.  Value  of  Ca- 
pacity for  Sketching.  — 5.  Not  to  be  acquired  by 
Copying  Sketches.  — 6.  Of  Finishing  Drawings.  — 8. 

Of  the  Importance  of  Education  of  the  Eye.  — 10.  A 
Love  for  it  essential  to  Success  in  Art. — 11.  Genius 
often  over-estimated.  — 14.  Drawing.  — 15.  Fault- 
Finding  should  not  be  indulged  in  too  freely  by  Begin- 
ners.— 16.  Their  too  commonly  injudicious  Hurry. — 

17.  Difficulties  about  their  Models,  Materials,  etc.  — 

19.  Study  and  Attention  to  Minutias  not  injurious. — 

20.  An  advisable  Course  of  Study.  — 21.  Drawing- 
Materials,  etc. — The  Pen — Pencil — Crayons  — Wa- 
ter-Colors — French-Boards,  etc.  — Drawing-Boards 
— to  stretch  Paper  — Cartoons,  etc.  — 23,  24,  25.  Of 
the  Practical  Use  of  the  Skeleton  in  Sketching.  — 26. 

Of  Outline,  etc.  — Artists’  Sketches.  — 27.  Sketching 
by  Masses.  — 28,  29,  30.  Of  Tinted  Paper,  Grounds, 


C O N T E N T S . 


etc. — 31,  32,  33,  43,  44.  Various  Expedients.  — 34, 
35,36.  Value  of  Sketches.  — 37.  Importance  of  a 
Knowledge  of  Perspective.  — 40.  Practical  Illustra- 
tion.— 41.  Expedients  in  making  Perspective  Draw- 
ings. — 45.  Of  Sketches  and  Studies.  — 46.  Sketches 
should  not  be  regarded  as  Pictures,  but  (47)  as  Mate- 
rials therefor.  — 48.  The  Model  should  be  closely  copied 
and  studied.  — 49.  Importance  and  most  advantage- 
ous Course  of  Study  of  Anatomy.  — 50.  Proficiency 
in  Anatomical  Knowledge  requisite  to  Artists.  — 51. 
Advantages  of  a Natural  Skeleton.  — 52.  Of  Ideal 
Creations.  — 53.  Of  Schools  of  Art page  169 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

OF  PAINTING. 

1.  Introductory  Observations.  — 2.  The  Employment  of 
Colors  may  be  advisable  at  an  early  Period  of  Ad- 
vancement.— Facility  in  Drawing  maybe  improved 
thereby.  — 4.  Simplicity  of  Subject  and  Method  rec- 
ommended to  Beginners.  — 7.  The  Methods  of  the 
Masters  of  Color  very  simple.  — 8.  Titian.  — 9.  Neat- 
ness recommended.  — Painting  in  Oil-Colors. — 

10.  Of  the  Palette. — 11.  Brushes  and  Pencils.  — 12. 
Easels. — 13.  Position  in  Painting.  — 14.  Of  Style  or 
Manner.  — 15.  Light  for  Painting  inOil. — -17.  Ar- 
rangement of  Colors  on  the  Palette  — The  Colors  of 
Rubens.  — 18.  Oil-  Colors  — White  — Naples  Yellow 

— Yellow  Ochre  — Venetian  and  Naples  Red  — Ver- 
milion— Raw  and  Burnt  Siena  — Raw  and  Burnt 
Umber  — Terra-Verde  — Ultramarine  — Cobalt,  Prus- 
sian, and  Antwerp  Blue  — Ivory  Black. — 19.  Of 
Grinding  the  Colors.  — 21,  22.  Setting  the  Palette. — 

23.  Dead  Coloring.  — 25.  Painting  a la  Prima.  — 28, 

33,  36.  Of  Grounds  and  Under-Preparations.  — 29. 
Glazing.  — 30.  Megilp.  — 31.  One  Oil,  or  Vehicle, 
should  be  employed  throughout  a Picture.  — 32.  Lin- 
seed-Oil  (Note).  — Method  of  preparing  Drying-Oil, 
Varnish,  etc.  — 33.  Scumbling.  — 34.  Of  the  Cracking 
of  an  Oil-Picture  — Causes.  — 35.  Creeping  of  Color. 

— 37.  Exposure  to  Light  necessary  for  newly-painted 
Pictures.  — 38.  Of  Varnishing.  — 39.  Effects  of  Time 
on  Oil-Picture?. — 40.  Brilliancy  of  Color  not  the  Result 
of  Bright  Pigments  — Of  Tone  and  Harmony.  — 41. 


The  Best  Subjects  for  a Beginner.  — 42.  Of  Land- 
scape-Painting. — 43,  44,  45.  The  Palette  for  Land- 
scape— a simple  one  recommended.  — 46.  Painting 
directly  from  Nature — not  universally  practised. — 

47.  Inconveniences  of  so  doing  less  than  commonly 
imagined.  — 48.  Of  Variation  of  Light  and  Effect.  — 

49.  Working  by  various  Lights  advisable — Out-door 
Study  of  Nature.  — 50.  Beginners  should  be  allowed 
every  possible  Advantage  — The  Employment  of  Oil- 
Colors  recommended.  — 51.  Painting  in  Water- 
Colors,  considered  as  Means  of  Study  of  Nature, 
etc.  — 52.  For  Sketches  and  Memoranda.  — 53.  Of 

the  Pigments.  — 54.  A Box  of  Colors. — 55.  Paper. 

56.  Pencils  and  Brushes.  — 57.  General  Principles 
alike  in  all  Methods.  — 58,  59.  Of  Outline. — 60. 
Neutral-Tint  Preparation. — 61.  Washes.  — 62.  Prac- 
tices of  Artists  in  Water-Colors.  — 63.  Painting  in 
Tempera.  — 64.  The  Pigments,  etc.  — 65.  Painting 
in  Fresco.  — 66.  Preparation  of  Walls,  Cartoons,  etc. 

— 67.  Colors,  Brushes,  etc. — 68.  Pigments  which 
may  be  employed.  — 69.  Easel-Pictures  in  Fresco.  — 

70.  Advantages  of  Fresco  considered  — The  two  Great 
Schools  of  Painting.  — 71.  Mural  Painting  in  Oil  — 
Raphael’s  Adoption  of  Oil-Painting  for  Walls  — Fres- 
coes of  a Later  Period.  — 72.  Encaustic  Painting. 

73.  Painting  or  Drawing  in  Pastel  or  Cray- 
ons — (Note)  — Directions  for  Fixing  and  Mounting 
Crayon  and  Pencil  Drawings.  — Conclusion.  . .page  209 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ETCHING  AND  ENGRAVING. 

j 1.  Importance  of  Learning  to  Etch.  — 2.  Character  of 
an  Etching.  — 3.  Advantages  to  Artists.  — 4.  The 
Etching-Needle. — 5.  The  Practice  formerly  more  gen- 
eral among  Artists  than  at  present.  — 6.  Of  Plates. 

7,  8.  Preparation  of  the  Plate.  — 9.  Etching  Ground. 

— 10.  Dabber.  — 11.  To  lay  a Ground. — 12.  Smo- 
king the  Ground. — 13.  Heating  the  Plate.  — 14.  To 
Caique  a Design. — 15.  The  Rest  for  the  Hand.  — 16. 

Use  of  Etching  by  Engravers.  — 17.  Subjects  for  Be- 
ginners.— 18.  Stopping  out  — the  Lens. — 19.  Bor- 
dering wax.  — 20,  21,  22.  Acids  and  Process  of  Biting- 
in. — 23.  Re-Biting.  — 24.  Gravers.  — 25.  Burnish- 


ers. — 26.  Scrapers.  — 27.  Dry  Pointed  Lines.  — 29. 

To  Set  the  Etching-Point.  — 30.  The  Graver.  — 31. 

To  Temper  Gravers,  etc.  — 32.  Artists’  Etchings. -Of 
Tools  and  Facilities  for  Etching.  — 33.  Of  Photograph- 
ic Etching  or  Drawing.  — 34.  The  Process  of  Etch- 
ing on  Copper  applicable  to  all  Metals.  — 35.  To  the 
Ornamental  Arts.  — 36.  Soft  Ground  Etching.  — 37. 
Etching  and  Drawing  on  Stone.  — 38.  Engraving 
in  Aquatint.  — 39.  Mezzotint  Engraving.  — 40.  Its 
Character. — 41.  Process.  — 42.  Roulettes  and  Sha- 
ding Tools.  - 43.  To  Lay  a Ground.— 44.  Relative  Ad- 
vantages of  Steel  and  Copper  Plates.  — 45.  Engraving 
in  Line  and  Stipple.  — 46.  Engraving  on  Wood. 

— Character  of  Drawing  Requisite.  — 47.  Tools  em- 

ployed.—48.  To  take  a Proof. — 49.  Working  by 
Lamp-Light.  — 50.  Conclusion page  253 

CHAPTER  X. 

OF  MODELLING. 

1.  Modelling. — 2.  In  all  its  Applications  to  Design  similar 
Principles  to  those  of  Drawing  and  Painting  involved. 

— 3.  Requirement  of  General  Education  by  Artists. 

— Means  of  its  Attainment.  — 4.  Modelling  in  Clay — 
Tools,  etc.  — 5.  Wax.  — 6.  Terra-Cotta.  — 7.  Of  “the 
Round”  and  “ Reliefs.” — 8.  Requisites  in  Modelling. — ■ 

9.  Process  of  a Model  for  Sculpture.  — 10.  Of  Braces 
and  Supports. — 11.  The  Naked  Figure. — 12.  Reliefs. 

13.  Moulding  and  Casting.  — 14.  Value  and  Ap- 
plication of  the  Galvano-Plastic  Process.  15.  Of 
Medals.  — 16.  Architectural  Models.  — 17.  Import- 
ance of  Modelling  to  Mechanics  as  well  as  Artists.  — 


E N T S. 

18.  The  Elementary  Instruction  in  Design  requisite 
for  Mechanics  similar  to  that  necessary  for  Artists  . . 279 

CHAPTER  XI. 

OF  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Composition.  — 2.  Its  General  Application.  — 3,4,5. 
General  Principles.  — 6.  Exemplification. — Both  Ap- 
plicable and  Requisite  in  all  Subjects.  — 8.  Of  Por- 
traiture.— 9.  Landscape.  — 10.  Compositions  should 
be  Consistent  with  Nature.  — 11.  Classification  of 
Styles. — 12.  Their  Application.  — 13.  Of  the  Shapes 
of  Pictures. — 14.  Difficulty  of  Classifying  many 
Compositions.  — 15.  Study  of  Approved  Works  recom- 
mended.— 16.  Of  Books  and  Theories  — Self-Reli- 
ance.— 17.  Practical  Methods  and  Expedients  usually 
employed  in  the  Execution  of  Original  Compositions. — 

18.  Of  the  Sketch. — 19.  Changes  and  Experiments. 

— 20.  Of  Method,  etc.  — 21.  The  Model  and  Appro- 
priation of  Study  of  Nature  — Expedients.  — 22. 
Practical  Difficulties  in  working  from  a Model.  — 23. 
Means  of  Obviating  them.  — 24.  Misleading  Tenden- 
cies experienced  by  Beginners — particularly  in  Regard 
to  Color.  — 25.  Of  Cartoons  for  Oil-Pictures. — 26. 

Of  Artificial  Models.  — 27.  No  one  Method  available 
in  all  Cases.  — 28.  Of  Style  and  Manner.  — 29.  The 
Practices  of  the  Masters  in  Art.  — Their  Appropria- 
tion of  the  Excellence  of  Others.  — Importance  of  a 
good  Beginning. — Their  Biographies  afford  useful  Sug- 
gestions to  the  Student.  — 30.  Advice  to  the  American 
© 

Art-Student.  — 31.  To  Teachers.  — Conclusion  ....  287 


fftHO  P IEARN  TDWdflE  CAM  LUIWTOJ) 

and,  as  writing  is  not  taught  to  those  only  who  are  destined  to  become 
authors,  but  as  forming  an  essential  part  of  general  education,  so  is 
drawing  equally  important  to  others  besides  professional  artists.  To  write 
— to  draw  a form  or  figure  that  shall  be  recognized  as  the  representative 
of  a letter  or  word,  is  one  thing  5 and  to  be  able  to  design,  draw,  or  write 
such  forms,  upon  principles  of  grace  and  accuracy — to  understand  the 
Art  of  writing — is  another.  Thus  it  is  also  with  Drawing,  another  mode 
of  expressing  ourselves,  not  less  useful  or  necessary  than  that  by  letters 


4 


I N T RODUCTION. 


or  words.  To  draw  a horse,  that  shall  not  be  mistaken  for  a man,  is  one  step 3 but  to  draw  a 

horse,  with  all  his  just  proportions  and  developments,  movement  and  expression,  is  an  Art  to  be 

acquired.  Any  one  can  make  something  on  paper  to  look  like  a tree,  a cottage,  a road,  a 

brook,  or  a mountain  3 but  Art  goes  farther,  investing  nature  with  charms  often  more  im- 

pressive than  the  reality,  even  to  the  comprehension  of  the  most  simple-minded  cow-boy,  who 
may  have  gone  that  road,  and  waded  that  brook  a thousand  times,  unconscious  of  the  beauty 
that  surrounded  him,  until  thus  developed  to  his  intelligence  and  appreciation  by  the  hand  of  art. 

Who  has  ever  hesitated  to  teach  a child  to  write,  because  it  was  not  intended  that  he 
should  be  an  author  ? How  many  regard  the  art  of  Drawing  as  being  of  no  practical  impor- 
tance, as  a branch  of  education,  to  any  but  professional  artists  5 and  consider  it,  in  its  most 
favorable  light,  as  a mere  accomplishment  — a pursuit  only  for  the  man  of  leisure  1 The  resources 
of  our  schools  are  often  exhausted  in  “finishing”  our  youth  with  “every  accomplishment 5” 
laid  on  so  lightly,  that,  for  all  real  and  practical  purposes  of  after-life,  they  are  as  valueless  to 
the  possessor  as  to  society.  Smatterings  of  languages,  living  and  dead,  are  heaped  upon  them, 
while  the  great,  universal  language,  the  language  of  Design,  is  forgotten 3 or  only  thought  of 
in  the  production  of  some  huge  “ castle  and  ruins,  with  a man  and  a boy  with  a stick  3 and  a 
dog” — painted  by  the  teacher,  under  the  scholar’s  direction,  to  hang  in  the  parlor,  as  the 
veritable,  first,  and  last,  and  only  production,  of  the  latter : who  at  once  acquires,  therefrom,  an 
oracular  authority  in  all  matters  connected  with  the  Fine  Arts,  and  leaves  admiring  friends  in 
wonder,  at  what  “he  might  have  done,  had  he  not  given  it  up.”  To  such,  it  may  be  said,  “You 
have  never  begun.” 

It  is  not  only  as  a beautiful  accomplishment,  or  a source  of  amusement  for  leisure  moments, 
that  the  art  of  Drawing  should  be  cultivated.  It  has  its  practical  uses,  in  every  occupation 
of  life.  It  opens  to  all  inexhaustible  sources  of  utility,  as  well  as  pleasure  3 practises  the  eye 
to  observe,  and  the  hand  to  record,  the  ever-varying  beauty  with  which  nature  abounds,  and 
spreads  a charm  around  every  object  of  God’s  beautiful  creation,  unfelt  and  unknown  to  those 
who  have  failed  or  neglected  its  cultivation.  It  does  more : it  gives  strength  to  the  arm  of  the 
mechanic,  and  taste  and  skill  to  the  producer,  not  only  of  the  embellishments,  but  actual  neces- 
sities of  life.  From  the  anvil  of  the  smith  and  the  workbench  of  the  joiner,  to  the  manufacturer 
of  the  most  costly  productions  of  ornamental  art,  it  is  ever  at  hand  wiih  its  powerful  aid,  in 
strengthening  invention  and  execution,  and  qualifying  the  mind  and  hand  to  design  and  produce 
whatever  the  wants  or  the  tastes  of  society  may  require. 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


Many  are  deterred  from  attempting  the  art  of  Drawing,  from  an  idea  that  they  lack  capacity, 
or,  what  the  world  calls  genius.  But  have  they  ever  made  the  attempt  ? Let  them  recall  to 
mind  their  first  steps  in  knowledge  of  every  kind,  and  judge  not  unfairly  of  their  capacity,  until 
they  have  tried  this  also.  Before  they  knew  their  A,  B,  C,  they  could  tell  a man  from  a dog,  by 
the  picture.  The  impressions  of  form  are  the  first  made  on  the  infant  mind ; and  were  it  taught, 
betimes,  or  even  encouraged  to  trace  these  impressions,  there  would  be  fewer  incapable  of 
expressing  the  language  of  Design.  The  untaught  savage  thus  records  the  story  of  his  battles ; 
as  the  traditions  of  his  fathers  have  come  down  to  him  from  generation  to  generation.  He 
directs  the  traveller  on  his  way,  by  marks  in  the  sand ; tells  him,  by  his  rude  outline,  of  mount- 
ains and  rivers  to  be  passed  5 and  no  one  can  mistake  his  meaning.  Who  is  there,  in  civilized 
life,  that  may  have  been  familiar  with  works  of  art  from  childhood,  that  can  not  do  this  ? 
If  he  can,  he  can  do  more.  He  possesses  the  germ  within  him,  and  needs  only  proper  cultiva- 
tion, for  its  successful  development. 

As  in  other  arts  and  studies,  all  can  not  expect  to  be  equally  perfect,  so  all  can  not  expect 
to  rival  the  master-spirits  in  the  arts  of  Design.  The  work  of  an  artist  is  that  of  a lifetime  of 
arduous  toil  and  study.  Of  the  thousands  who  delight  themselves  and  their  friends  in  music, 
how  few  have  composed  an  opera,  or  even  achieved  the  composition  of  a single  air  ? Yet,  what 
would  the  world  lose,  were  none  to  attempt  the  cultivation  of  this  refined  and  charming  accom- 
plishment, but  those  who  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  its  pursuit!  Were  music  neglected 
as  a study  by  all  except  those  who  make  it  the  business  of  their  lives,  even  they  would  find  few 
to  admire  and  sympathize  with  them,  in  their  greatest  productions,  for  want  of  taste  and 
understanding. 

In  the  elementary  portions  of  this  work,  the  smile  of  the  professional  artist  may  be  moved, 
when  he  finds  the  author  dwelling  on  what  some  may  think  trifles,  and  giving  instruction  in  the 
methods  of  sharpening  a pencil  and  making  a pen.  But  let  him  remember  the  day  that  such 
instruction  might  have  helped  even  him.  When  the  pupil  in  Drawing  has  attained  a proficiency 
to  place  him  in  the  position  of  an  artist,  his  course  of  study  will  require  a direction  beyond  the 
means  of  these  pages  to  afford  him.  This  he  must  obtain  elsewhere,  and  pursue,  with  that  fixed 
determination  and  singleness  of  purpose,  by  which  excellence  is  only  to  be  achieved  5 and  he  will 
find  that,  could  all  that  he  requires  be  placed  at  once  within  his  reach,  it  would  be,  in  a meas- 
ure, valueless,  for  want  of  that  strength  to  appreciate  and  appropriate  such  advantages,  which 
is  best  acquired  by  patient  search  and  progressive  attainment.  Short-cuts  and  easy  roads  to 


6 


1 INTRODUCTION. 


knowledge  give  but  little  real  aid  to  him  who  has  a long  and  arduous  journey  to  pursue  ; though 
it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  hazard  an  experiment,  by  which  the  spirit  may  be  broken  down  with 
toil,  in  a path  into  which  we  occasionally  diverge,  as  a recreation,  or  an  accessory  to  other  pursuits. 

From  the  delight,  as  well  as  profit,  that  awaits  them,  all  may  be  safely  invited  and  tempted 
to  the  study  of  Drawing.  They  may  find  difficulties  5 but  they  will  find  pleasures,  also,  of  the 
richest  kind.  They  will  find  flowers  blooming  along  their  way,  and  fascinating  enticement 
at  every  step : nature  unfolding  her  ample  volumes,  and  displaying  combinations  of  beauty 
and  delight,  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  tell  them  of.  It  may  be  theirs,  to  record  the  ever- 
changing  pictures  of  earth  and  heaven  5 to  give  them  body  and  form,  in  which  others,  less 
favored  than  themselves,  may  participate  through  them : theirs,  to  preserve  the  image  of  some 
cherished  object  long  after  it  has  ceased,  in  its  reality,  to  exist — or,  perhaps,  to  call  forth  some 
priceless  treasure  from  the  world  of  poetry  and  thought. 

To  those  who  have  in  view  more  than  mere  pleasure  and-  amusement  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
art  of  Drawing,  may  be  fairly  promised  advantages  which  they  will  surely  realize.  Most  of 
the  difficulties  constantly  experienced  by  artificers,  in  the  execution  of  their  handiwork,  will  be 
obviated,  when  the  hand  that  executes  can  design.  Let  our  mechanics  have  their  apprentices 
instructed  in  Drawing,  and  the  effects  will  be  soon  evident  in  their  workshops,  for  the  arm  of 
the  boy  will  thereby  become  nerved  with  the  strength  of  the  man  ; and  masters  will  them- 
selves be  emancipated  from  dependence  upon  foreign  inventions,  that  are  rarely  adapted  to  the 
wants,  tastes,  and  habits  of  our  people.  Let  these  wants  be  supplied  by  articles  more  useful 
and  equally  ornamental  of  home  production.  Let  them  learn  to  value  and  use  rightly  their 
own  strength,  and  their  reward  will  follow. 

The  manufacturers  of  Europe  are  drawing  closer  and  closer  the  connexion  between  the 
artist  and  the  workman.  At  first,  they  borrowed  aid } now  they  are  acquiring  knowledge 
for  themselves.  For  the  promotion  of  this  object,  schools  have  been  long  established  on  the 
continent,  under  government  protection  and  support  5 so  much  importance  is  attached  to  their 
existence,  as  a measure  of  national  policy.  The  influence  of  these  schools  was  so  strongly 
felt  in  England,  to  the  detriment  of  English  industrial  art,  that  it  became  a subject  of  alarm  to 
her  statesmen.  All  the  capital,  energy,  and  strength,  the  superiority  in  material  and  mechanical 
facilities  of  England,  could  not  contend  against  the  higher  excellence  of  her  foreign  rivals.  As 
the  voice  of  one  man,  her  mechanics  and  manufacturers  confessed  the  truth,  and  demanded 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


protection  from  the  government — not  by  tariffs,  but  by  education.  Her  legislators  saw  the  evil, 
and  at  once  applied  the  remedy,  by  the  establishment  of  Government  Schools  of  Design.  These 
have  been  attended  with  such  beneficial  results,  that  there  is  now  scarcely  a manufacturing  town 
in  England  that  has  not  claimed,  and  shared,  the  advantages  of  provincial  branches,  and  the 
manufacturing  interests  of  the  continent  have  been  so  obviously  affected  thereby,  as  to  demand 
increased  facilities  of  education  in  Design,  which  has  been  consequently  extended,  as  well  by 
private  and  practical  combinations,  as  by  government  patronage  and  support — not  only  in  the 
lyceums  and  institutions  for  advanced  education,  but  also  in  provincial  and  elementary  schools. 
Our  mechanics  can  and  must  do  for  themselves  what  our  state  and  general  governments  have 
hitherto  shown  such  indifference  in  undertaking  for  the  promotion  of 
involved  in  the  perfection  of  our  systems  of  popular  education. 

While  foreign  arts  and  manufactures  have  inundated  our  markets,  to  the  detriment 
of  our  own  enterprising  mechanics,  and  politicians  have  convulsed  the  land  with  schemes 
and  plans,  and  measures  of  protection,  all  seem  to  have  lost  sight  of  one  of  the  great  and 
primary  causes  of  the  evil  — the  want  of  artistical  education  among  our  workmen.  They  are 
taught  to  read  and  write,  to  hammer  and  to  saw  ; but  to  design  — the  first  motive,  the  very 
genius  of  all  arts  — is  utterly  neglected.  While  it  is  so,  we  must  compete  with  the  old  world, 
especially  in  the  production  of  articles  of  taste,  on  most  unfavorable  grounds.  The  spirit  of 
independence,  that  will  one  day  cover  the  western  continent,  seems  not,  as  yet,  to  have  entered 
our  workshops.  We  are,  in  this  respect,  comparatively,  still  a colony  of  Europe;  borrowing  and 
adapting,  but  doing  nothing  for  ourselves ; waiting  for  every  novelty  to  cross  the  seas,  to  imi- 
tate it  — creating  wants  by  reproduction,  and  burdening  society  with  anti-American  tastes  and 
caprices,  instead  of  supplying  them  with  objects  no  less  useful  for  being  beautiful.  A few 
imported  pattern-books,  of  little  value,  because  not  adapted  to  our  purposes,  constitute  the 
resources  in  design,  of  most  of  our  mechanics.  Require  them  to  make  something  to  suit  a given 
purpose,  that  shall  be  at  the  same  time  ornamental,  and  you  ask  an  impossibility.  Even  if  the 
workman  may  have  a vague  idea  in  his  mind  of  what  is  wanted,  he  can  not  give  it  form  : perhaps 
he  may  have  the  spirit  to  make  the  attempt,  but  he  can  not  satisfy  himself — all  goes  wrong  — his 
pattern-books  fail  him ; he  looks  around  for  something  to  begin  from,  and  gives  it  up  in  despair ; 
or,  what  is  worse,  produces  some  deformity  that  disgusts  his  employer,  who  will  not  venture  on  a 
second  experiment,  but  sends  abroad,  and  gets  what  he  desires.  Can  the  mechanic  complain  that 
home  manufactures  are  not  encouraged  ? Had  he  possessed  even  an  elementary  knowledge  of 


vast  national  interests 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


Design,  he  would  have  done  better ; had  he  cultivated  and  perfected  that  elementary  knowledge, 
his  difficulties  would  have  all  vanished,  and  the  beginning  and  end  of  his  labor  would  have  been 
placed  at  once  before  him.  Make  them  artists,  or,  better  still,  artist-workmen,  and,  with  their 
proverbial  energy,  intelligence,  and  enterprise,  no  limit  can  be  placed  to  what  our  mechanics 
may  achieve. 


A knowledge  of  Design,  even  in  copying,  gives  great  advantages.  If  he  understands  the 
principles  upon  which  the  original  is  produced,  there  is  no  fear  of  the  copyist  committing 
offensive  variations.  How  often  do  we  see  the  most  beautiful  designs  distorted  into  deformity  by 
the  variation  of  a single  line  ; an  error  of  ignorance  that  must  continually  occur,  until  our  me- 
chanics are  better  instructed  in  this  branch  of  education.  It  is  a vain  hope,  that  a work  so  limited 
as  this,  will  supply  all  the  information  the  artisan  should  require  5 but  should  it  lead  him  to  make 
a beginning,  he  will  so  soon  find  his  advantage  in  it,  that  he  will  be  induced  to  pursue  it  farther. 
He  will  have  his  children  and  apprentices  instructed  5 he  will  urge  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  collections  of  models,  to  which  they  can  be  directed ; and  he  will  in  his  own  time  see  the 
fruits,  in  the  advancement  of  our  manufactures  to  a degree  of  perfection  that  can  never  exist, 
without  an  intimate  connexion  between  them  and  the  Arts  of  Design. 


There  are  those  of  another  class  of  society  to  whom  education  in  Drawing  would  prove 
a real  blessing.  Of  the  thousands  of  helpless  and  dependent  females,  who  are  compelled  to 
toil  night  and  «ay,  in  painful  and  ill-paid  labor,  to  the  destruction  of  health  and  life,  too 
many  are  tempted  into  paths  of  vice  and  misery  by  absolute  necessity,  who  undoubtedly  possess 
capacity  that  needs  but  cultivation  and  development  to  secure  respectability  and  sup- 
port. The  natural  refinement  and  fertility  of  the  female  mind  renders  it  a fruitful  field  for 
cultivation,  that  should  be  rescued  from  neglect.  If  the  voice  of  right  and  mercy  plead  not 
with  sufficient  eloquence  in  their  behalf,  let  that  of  interest  at  least  prevail.  Give  to  women 
the  advantages  of  education  in  Design.  Begin  in  your  public  schools — let  them  carry  it  to 
their  homes,  to  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  taste  and  fancy  ; to  the  early  education  of  their 
children — and  more,  if  they  possess  the  capacity,  let  them  take  the  pencil,  the  chisel,  or  the 
burin,  and  instead  of  broken-hearted  victims  of  incessant  toil,  we  shall  soon  see  them  filling 
the  places,  and  with  the  wages  of  men,  in  departments  of  usefulness  and  industry  for  which 
they  are  by  nature  so  eminently  qualified. 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


Of  all  people  in  the  world,  we  stand  most  in  need  of  knowledge  in  the  Arts  of  Design.  If 
in  Europe,  surrounded  as  they  are  by  monuments  of  art,  the  accumulation  of  ages,  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  make  Drawing  a part  of  common  education,  how  much  more  essential  is  it 
here,  where  there  is  little  or  nothing  of  the  sort.  We  must  learn  to  think,  and  feel,  and  do,  for 
ourselves.  We  must  begin  and  carry  out  a new  system  of  education  in  this  respect  5 and,  once 
placed  in  possession  of  a beginning,  the  energy  and  independent  character  of  our  people,  so 
evident  in  everything  else,  will  be  made  available  to  the  cultivation  of  national  taste  in  art,  and 
the  just  appreciation  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful.  Art,  in  its  higher  efforts,  will  no  longer  suffer 
from  the  pedantry  of  travelled  quackery,  but  will  be  elevated  in  itself,  and  elevated  in  its  efforts, 
by  the  existence  of  a fair,  honest,  and  intelligent  tribunal.  The  cast-off  frippery  of  European 
garrets  and  workshops  will  no  longer  find  place  beside  our  home  productions  in  the  Fine  and 
Industrial  Arts.  The  vast  resources  of  mind  and  matter  with  which  a bountiful  Providence  has 
endowed  our  land,  will  be  brought  forth  to  add  to  its  national  greatness  5 and,  although  we 
have  no  vast  cathedrals  or  regal  palaces  to  fill  with  pictures  and  statues,  or  adorn  with  works  of 
ornamental  art,  we  have  a vast,  an  independent  and  intelligent  people  to  appeal  to : who  need 
only  to  be  shown  the  truth,  to  know  and  maintain  it. 

That  a general  taste  for  the  Fine  Arts  does  exist,  however  uncultivated  it  may  be,  is  evident. 
Where  is  there  the  humblest  cottage  that  has  not  its  walls  or  mantlepiece  decorated  with  a picture 
or  plaster  figure  ? However  rude  may  be  the  work  of  art  which  hangs  as  “ the  bright  Palladium” 
of  the  cottage,  yet  the  household  care  bestowed  upon  its  preservation,  and  the  pleasure  it 
affords  by  its  possession  and  contemplation,  show  an  appreciation  of  its  worth,  a decided  taste, 
that,  if  cultivated,  would  lead  to  better  productions ; for  the  supply  would  assuredly  be  improved 
in  character,  in  proportion  to  the  demand.  A wooden  clock  sells  the  readier  for  its  picture, 
and  more  especially,  if  that  picture  touch  a chord  of  national  pride.  Washington  and  Mount 
Vernon,  although  pictured  with  a most  libellous  pencil,  have  saved  many  a worthless  machine 
from  the  rubbish-loft. 

What  village  school-girl  is  there,  whose  ambition  does  not  reach  to  the  imitation  of  natural 
objects  in  needlework?  and,  although  it  may  often  puzzle  the  most  acute  to  discover  a rose  from 
a tulip,  or  a cat  from  a squirrel,  in  her  worsted-picture,  yet  the  taste,  the  inclination  — to  try  — is 
there.  Could  she  be  able  to  select  subjects  for  imitation,  from  the  boundless  resources  of  nature 
with  which  she  is  surounded  — could  she  have  the  means  and  opportunity  afforded  her,  by  proper 

instruction,  of  perpetuating,  by  her  pencil  or  brush,  the  flower  she  has  reared,  the  home  she  has 

2 

\ 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


been  happy  in,  the  resemblance  of  friends  she  has  loved,  what  a new  source  of  intellectual 
enjoyment  would  be  opened  to  her.  And  not  to  her  alone.  The  influence  of  that  refinement  of 
sentiment  and  taste,  that  must  ever  follow,  will  extend  throughout  her  life,  and  spread  a charm 
about  her,  which  will  be  seen  and  felt  in  all  her  associations,  whatever  be  her  destiny. 

The  importance  of  Drawing,  as  a part  of  popular  education,  and  the  want,  so  generally 
expressed,  of  some  popular  work  on  the  subject,  by  which  it  could  be  introduced,  not  only  into 
schools,  but  home  instruction,  has  led  to  the  publication  of  the  American  Drawing-Book.  It 
is  given  to  the  public  with  the  ardent  hope  that  it  may,  in  some  degree,  awaken  an  interest  in  a 
branch  of  knowledge  that  has  been,  hitherto,  strangely  neglected  among  the  people  of  the  United 
States  5 not  so  much  from  indifference  to  its  importance,  as  from  the  want  of  efficient  means  of 
its  acquirement. 

Of  Teachers,  all  that  can  be  required,  is,  to  give  it  a fair  experiment. 

Of  Pupils,  is  to  be  asked,  a faithful  observance  of  the  course  of  study  recommended  — not 
to  grow  weary,  if  sometimes  they  find  their  patience  taxed  too  heavily.  Let  them  be  assured, 
that  nothing  more  is  demanded  of  them  than  is  believed  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  then* 
advancement.  If,  at  any  time,  a doubt  should  arise  in  their  minds,  as  to  the  utility  of  that  which 
is  required  of  them,  let  them  persevere  a little  farther,  and  they  will  be  satisfied.  There  are  few 
secrets  to  teach : all  must  depend  upon  their  own  exertions.  The  business  of  the  Guide  is  to 
direct  their  steps  in  the  right  way,  and  to  supply  them  with  such  information  as  they  may  require 
in  their  progress,  not  to  bear  them  on  his  shoulders.  The  correction  of  their  own  errors,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  means  of  their  success,  will  supply  the  rest.  One  promise,  in  conclusion,  can 
be  safely  made  : the  gain  will  well  repay  the  effort.  Let  them  not  hesitate,  for  fear  of  failure, 
but  be  assured,  that  the  measure  of  their  success  will  be  in  proportion  to  their  exertions.  When 
once  they  have  passed  through  the  elementary  studies  of  art,  they  will  need  no  incentive  be- 
yond the  reward  they  will  receive  in  its  practice  — a new  world  of  enjoyment,  a new  sense  to 
appreciate  its  worth,  will  be  their  recompense,  and  they  will  never  regret  the  day  of  their 
beginning. 


CHAPTER  I 


II BJ  S T IB  Iff  0 tIF  E CD  KF  i 


facility  of  hand  is  one  of  the  first  requisites  in  drawing, 
whatever  instrument  be  employed,  whether  Pencil,  Pen,  Brush, 
or  Modelling  tool.  Many  are  by  nature  endowed  with  a certain 
mechanical  dexterity,  or  happy  readiness  with  the  fingers,  to 
whom  this  facility  is  of  easy  acquirement  5 and  all  possess  it, 
to  a certain  degree,  or  they  could  not  be  taught  to  write, 
which,  in  the  beginning,  is  nothing  more  than  the  drawing 
of  certain  conventional  forms,  without  any  distinct  idea  of  an 
object  beyond  the  imitation  of  such  forms.  The  first  u pot-hook 
and  hanger,”  is,  clearly,  Drawing.  If  the  pupil  has  improved 
upon  this  humble  beginning,  so  as  to  write  a fair  hand,  he  already, 
perhaps  unconsciously,  possesses  an  acquirement  that  will  not 
only  make  easy  his  first  essays  in  drawing,  but  essentially  serve 
him,  however  far  its  pursuit  may  be  extended.  Should  this  useful  accomplishment  have  been 
neglected,  he  can  not  do  better  than  practise  his  hand  in  the  careful  imitation  of  good  specimens 
of  penmanship,  or  place  himself  under  the  instruction  of  some  good  writing-master.  The  use 
of  the  pen  has  been  too  much  overlooked  by  draughtsmen,  especially  by  amateurs.  It  produces 
a certain  line,  and  induces  an  early  habit  of  care  and  accuracy,  from  tlie  fact  that  it  can 
not  be  easily  erased.  Many  are  falsely  captivated  by  the  spirited  dash  of  a master,  who 
overlook  the  means  by  which  that  ease  and  freedom  have  been  acquired.  It  is  the  result 
of  accuracy  and  labor  5 and  to  imitate  the  end,  we  should  not  shrink  from  the  beginning.  Let 
us ' lay  well  the  foundation,  before  we  begin  the  structure.  He  who  starts  with  the  black- 
lead  pencil  in  one  hand,  and  the  Indian  rubber  in  the  other,  will  find,  however  convenient  the 
latter  may  be,  that  he  will  soon  fall  into  a loose  and  slovenly  habit,  of  which  it  w ill  be  difficult  to 


11 


12 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


divest  himself.  They  are  both  good  and  serviceable  in  their  places  ; but  are  often,  in  the  hands 
of  beginners,  most  sadly  abused. 

2.  The  first  object  of  the  beginner  should  be,  to  acquire  a readiness  in  observing  and  forming 
simple  lines,  with  their  relation  one  to  another,  their  direction,  variation,  beginning,  and  ter- 
mination ; also,  to  make  a duplicate  of  any  given  line.  Take,  for  example,  a sheet  of  ruled 
letter  or  foolscap  paper,  and  begin  by  tracing  over  the  lines  with  a pen,  from  left  to  right,  and 
from  right  to  left  — 


Let  your  line  be  distinct  and  clear.  Avoid  a habit  of  feeling  your  way,  as  it  were,  by  a num- 
ber of  uncertain  touches  — — — Endeavor,  at  once,  to  express  what 

you  desire  with  firmness  and  decision - — _ • 

3.  The  system  of  these  early  lessons,  to  those  who  find  it  difficult  to  attain  precision  of  hand, 
is  of  so  much  importance,  that  it  is  strongly  recommended,  especially  for  schools ; that  it  should 
be  commenced  as  soon  as  a child  is  taught  to  hold  a pen  or  slate-pencil.  By  it  the  instructor 
will  find  his  pupils  more  rapidly  acquire  a good  hand  in  writing,  as  well  as  drawing  5 the  eye,  as 
well  as  the  hand,  thus  being  made  progressively  familiar  with  the  observation  and  imitation  of 
lines  and  forms.  The  drawing-master  comes  into  our  schools  at  too  late  a day.  Every  teacher, 
can  and  may  be  one.  A child  knows  its  first  letter  by  its  form,  calls  its  name,  and  remembers  it, 
by  that  knowledge  5 and  few  there  are,  who  can  not  make  their  letters  on  a slate,  as  soon  as  they 
know  them  in  the  book  5 rudely,  it  is  true,  but  still  in  a manner  to  be  understood.  And  yet  th» 
first  impulse  of  nature  is  too  often  disregarded  5 the  child  is  driven  from  that  which  might  be 
to  him  a source  of  amusement  as  well  as  profit,  and  made,  by  the  forced  discipline  of  schools, 
to  learn  to  read  before  he  learns  to  write.  “ One  thing  at  a time,”  may  be  a good  adage  for 
old  heads,  but  childhood  needs  variety  in  its  labors.  Its  mental  exertions  should  be  tempered 
by  agreeable  diversion,  and,  more  especially,  when  that  diversion  can  be  made  of  lasting  benefit. 
We  may  rely  upon  it,  that  the  child,  who  loves  his  slate  better  than  his  book,  will  soon,  by  a 
judicious  indulgence,  learn  to  love  them  both  together.  The  truant  and  the  sullen  prisoner  to 
the  school-bench  would  become  the  willing  learner ; and  the  early  habits,  thus  acquired,  of 


STRAIGHT  LINES. 


13 


observation  and  appreciation  of  the  beauty  and  wonder  of  creation,  will  lead  to  a healthful  thirst 
for  knowledge,  the  truest  and  surest  incentive  to  the  study  of  books. 

4.  In  view  of  the  importance  of  this  early  education  in  drawing,  as  well  as  to  assist  teachers 
in  carrying  out  the  system  proposed,  there  have  been  prepared  Drawing  or  Copy-Books,  ruled 
and  headed,  on  each  page,  with  progressive  examples,  similar  to  those  which  will  be  given  in 
the  course  of  these  rudimental  instructions.  Thus,  with  little  or  no  additional  labor,  teachers 
may  at  once,  although  possessing,  themselves,  no  knowledge  of  design,  be  capable  of  affording 
the  means  of  instruction  to  their  pupils,  as  well  as  supplying  their  own  deficiency,  in  an  important, 
and  too  long  neglected,  branch  of  popular  education.  These  Copy-Books  may  be  procured  of  the 
publisher,  at  a cost  little  beyond  the  price  of  an  ordinary  blank  book. 

5.  Having  acquired  a considerable  degree  of  accuracy  in  tracing  the  ruled  faint  line,  as 
suggested  (2),  proceed  to  fix  certain  points  along  the  line,  at  random,  and  then  connect  them 
together  ; moving  your  pen  or  pencil  (the  former  is  to  be  preferred)  slowly  and  steadily,  and  not 
taking  it  from  the  paper  until  the  line  required  is  completed  — 


Repeat  this,  from  right  to  left,  and  from  left  to  right,  as  in  the  first  instance.  After  some  degree 
of  precision  is  thus  obtained,  you  may,  without  fixing  the  points,  endeavor  to  draw  the  lines,  of 
the  length  required,  by  the  aid  of  the  eye  and  hand  alone  5 and  then,  laying  aside  your  ruled 
paper,  see  how  nearly  you  can  come  to  the  examples  given,  on  plain  paper,  on  the  slate  or 
blackboard.  Observe  well,  before  you  touch  your  paper,  where  the  line  is  to  begin,  what  direc- 
tion it  is  to  take,  and  where  to  terminate.  When  you  can  achieve  this,  with  ease  and  accuracy, 
you  have  made  a sure  beginning ; the  importance  of  which  will  be  felt  and  better  appreciated 
hereafter,  when,  any  amount  of  time  and  patience  bestowed,  in  making  yourself  master  of  the 
principles  and  practice  of  these  primary  lessons,  will  not  be  regretted. 

6.  In  your  next  effort,  you  have  no  longer  to  trace  the  ruled  lines,  but,  to  trust  your  eye  and 
hand  in  drawing  a line,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  middle  : — 


A difficulty  will  be  felt,  at  first,  in  drawing  continuous  lines,  of  great  length ; as  you  will  find 


14 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


your  hand  liable  to  get  the  start  of  your  observation,  and  stray  from  its  proper  direction. 
They  should,  therefore,  at  first,  be  short.  Increase  their  length,  as  you  gradually  acquire  facil- 
ity and  precision.  When  you  find  your  pen  going  astray,  as  it  is  apt  to  do  at  first,  leave 
off,  and  again  seeking,  by  your  eye,  the  true  point  to  start  from,  make  another  effort  $ and  thus, 
until  you  can  draw  a line  extending  the  entire  width  of  the  page.  Repeat  the  trial  from  right 
to  left,  as  well  as  from  left  to  right. 

7.  In  this  lesson,  you  have  to  keep  two  lines,  besides  the  one  you  are  drawing,  under 
your  observation  at  the  same  time.  Simple  as  it  may  appear,  it  is  one  of  much  importance. 
You  are  already  entering  the  broad  field  of  Design,  and  are  to  consider  yourself  no  longer  a 
servile  tracer.  Here,  let  it  be  urged  upon  the  pupil  to  avoid,  in  all  cases,  the  pernicious  habit 
of  tracing.  It  is  a tempting,  but  a dangerous  expedient.  No  one  can  expect  to  attain  profi- 
ciency in  off-hand  drawing,  that  relies  upon  it,  even  as  a last  resource.  Early  learn  to  trust  and 
depend  upon  your  eye  and  hand  alone.  They  will  serve  you  well  and  faithfully,  when  the  clear 
pane  of  glass,  the  transparent  paper,  and  the  many  other  weak  resources  of  weak  hands,  will  fail. 

8.  In  like  manner  as  in  former,  proceed  with  the  following  examples : First,  pointing  off  the 
divisions  or  spaces  between  the  faint  lines,  and  then  connecting  the  points  carefully  j bestowing  as 
much  time  and  practice  on  each  example  as  your  progress  or  improvement  may  render  necessary. 


9.  Observe  that,  in  adjusting  the  points,  marking  the  divisions  of  the  space  between  the 


STRAIGHT  LINES. 


15 


ruled  lines,  it  will  be  easier  to  fix  the  centre  point  first 
divisions 


then  the  quarter 


and  sub- 


; and  in  like  manner,  where  they  do  not  begin  from  the  centre,  divide  the  space, 
first,  by  two  points  ! , and  then  by  subdivisions  • . All  this  is  of  more  importance  than 

may,  at  first,  appear  : all  tends  to  the  acquirement  of  a habit  of  accuracy,  and  to  the  attain- 
ment of  that  facility  of  hand  which  is  so  essential.  According  as  the  pupil  has  more  or  less 
applied  and  perfected  himself  in  these  elementary  principles,  will  he  hereafter  find  ease  or 
difficulty  in  more  advanced  studies. 


10.  The  pupil  may  now  practise  the  drawing  of  lines,  gradually  nearer  to  each  other, 
until  they  form  an  even  tint,  without  touching.  In  this  trial,  he  will  begin  to  feel  the  profit 
of  his  former  labor  ; and,  according  to  his  success,  can  judge  of  his  advancement  in  previous 
lessons. 


In  the  second  example  are  lines  slanting,  upright,  crossing  each  other,  etc.  A continued  line  or 
two,  of  each  variety,  is  advised  for  practice.  First,  draw  a set,  as  at  a,  entirely  across  the  page  ; 
then  proceed,  in  like  manner,  with  b and  c.  Having  succeeded  in  producing  these,  separately, 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy;  begin  again,  and  draw  a set  a;  that  done,  proceed  to  cross  them 
with  a set  of  lines  slanting  in  the  direction  of  c,  which  will  produce  an  effect  as  seen  at  d : 
and  again,  by  crossing  with  the  perpendicular  lines  b,  will  be  produced  e.  In  the  case  of  f, 
first  draw  the  lines  as  at  a,  and  then  a fainter  interline  between  each  one.  In  like  manner,  with 
advantage,  you  may  proceed  with  b and  c ; only  making  them  somewhat  wider  apart,  to  allow 
space  for  the  interline. 


11.  Before  proceeding  with  the  examples  that  follow,  attention  should  be  recalled  to  what  has 
been  said  in  reference  to  fixing  points,  etc.  (9).  It  will  now  be  of  much  assistance  to  have  paper 
ruled  in  squares ; and  if  this  can  be  done  by  the  pupil  himself,  it  will  be  all  the  better.  If 
example  8 has  been  properly  practised  and  understood,  the  following  will  be  comparatively  easy 
In  all,  the  lines  form  right  angles,  except  the  last,  which  presents,  where  they  cross  each  other, 
what  is  called  a lozenge. 


16 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


12.  In  drawing  the  following : first  fix  the  points,  and  connect  them  as  above ; then  proceed 
without  them,  endeavoring  to  determine  their  position  by  careful  observation,  and  then  expressing 
each  line  and  figure  with  decision,  unaided  by  the  points  beyond  their  imaginary  existence. 


13.  The  draughtsman  should  always,  as  far  as  practicable,  keep  his  work  before  him  5 
as  in  writing,  we  progress  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  page.  Of  course,  in  drawing 
the  general  outline  of  an  object,  this  would  be,  in  a measure,  impossible  and  improper ; 
but,  in  forming  tints,  especially  with  the  pen,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  working 
over  what  has  been  done  already,  and  which  is,  in  some  degree,  the  guide  to  what  is 
to  be  done  j as  the  pen  or  pencil,  partially  covering  the  lower  lines,  produces  uncer- 
tainty. For  example,  it  is  easier  to  draw  one  line  parallel  to  another,  having  the  given  line 


, than  if  it  were  below  it 


. The  simple  experi- 


ment made  by  the  learner  will  at  once  convince  him  of  this  5 and  in  like  manner,  he  will  find  he 
can  draw  lines  to  express  tints  or  shadows  with  much  greater  facility  and  accuracy,  by  keeping  what 


he  has  already  done  before  him 


^ , to  overreach  it. 


Besides,  the  liability  of  running,  or  blotting,  one  line  into  another,  unnecessarily,  is  avoided. 


STRAIGHT  LINES. 


17 


14.  The  advantage  of  acquiring  a method  in  forming  lines  and  tints,  will  be  felt  in  the 
following  examples : — 


The  pupil  will  also  begin  to  appreciate  the  power  of  lines,  in  expressing  tints,  and  in  giving 
detail  of  form  to  simple  outlines.  In  all  of  these  there  is  one  common  outline,  varied  by  divis- 
ions and  tints. 


15.  The  following  figure,  formed  of  straight  lines  and  right  angles,  will  show  the  importance 
of  a clear  and  accurate  outline  \ which,  when  once  obtained,  may  be  with  ease  worked  into 
endless  variations. 


A B C D E F G 


The  pupil  should  first  draw  the  simple  outline  of  the  figure  a,  upon  the  principles  laid  down  in 
former  examples  (11).  Having  accomplished  that,  let  him  next  draw  the  interline,  as  shown  b; 
after  which,  he  can  express  the  tint  or  shadow  on  the  figure  c.  Next,  let  him  draw  the  faint  line, 
near  the  inner  edge  of  the  outline  ( a)  he  has  already  done,  as  d : then  proceed  with  e,  and  so 
on  with  e and  g $ always  observing  to  draw  the  outline  of  the  tint  or  shadow  first. 


16.  The  following  examples  present  forms  of  less  simplicity,  yet  are  equally  regular  and 
balanced  in  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other.  They  are  given,  not  only  for  practice,  but  to 


show  the  motive  or  method  of  their  construction.  If  the  pupil  were  to  attempt  to  draw  the  fourth 
or  fifth  figure,  for  instance,  by  a mere  outline,  he  would  encounter  great  difficulty,  and  fail  of 


18 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


success  5 but  in  a clear  comprehension  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  outline  of  that,  or 
of  any  other  such  figure,  may  be  accurately  produced,  he  will  be  able  to  do  so  with  com- 
parative ease.  The  value  and  application  of  this  principle  of  Design  will  be  hereafter  more 
fully  appreciated  by  the  learner. 


17.  One  more  example  of  objects  formed  of  straight  lines  is  added,  to  show,  in  some  degree, 
he  application  of  what  has,  thus  far,  occupied  the  attention  of  the  pupil,  and  should  be  copied, 


, carefully  as  possible,  first  on  the  ruled  paper  5 observing  well  the  parts  or  forms  the  lines 
•esent  as  they  cross  the  dotted  or  faint  lines  5 recalling  to  memory  all  that  has  been  before  said, 
pecially  with  regard  to  the  importance  of  ascertaining  the  point  of  beginning  and  ending,  as 
. ell  as  direction,  of  each  line.  When  some  degree  of  precision  is  acquired  on  the  ruled  paper, 
y it  without  — on  the  slate  — the  blackboard  — every  way  5 and  then  try  your  memory,  and  see 
it  will  serve  you  as  it  ought.  See  if  you  can  draw  a gate,  a table,  or  a box,  without  the  object 
;fore  you.  He  who  can  draw  nothing  but  what  he  has  before  him,  loses  the  best  half  of  the 
t.  Begin  at  once  in  the  right  way — the  surest  to  success.  Venture  at  once  upon  original 
diievement  in  design,  which  is  but  the  expression  of  that  which  exists  in  memory  and  imagina- 
m ; these  clearly  conceived,  a capacity  is  attainable  by  which  its  expression  may  be  realized 
design  as  readily  as  the  representation  of  a tangible  object. 

18.  Thus  far,  attention  has  been  directed  only  to  the  drawing  of  straight  lines  5 and, 
proper  care  and  study  have  been  bestowed  upon  the  principles  laid  down,  and  the  hand 


CURVED  LINES. 


If) 


has  been  taught  to  keep  pace  with  the  understanding  of  these  principles,  the  few  examples  to  be 
given  in  the  drawing  of  curves  will  be  all  that  is  required,  before  he  is  introduced  to  the  great 
school  of  Art  — the  imitation  of  nature.  Let  him  be  advised  not  to  hurry  forward  too  rapidly  — 
to  gain  strength  as  he  goes  — to  confine  his  efforts  to  what  he  can  accomplish,  rather  than  run 
the  risk  of  failure,  in  attempts  beyond  his  power. 

19.  Again  (2)  let  the  importance  of  a clear,  firm,  and  well-defined  line  be  urged.  “ Think 
before  you  draw,”  is  as  important  a maxim  as  “ Think  before  you  speak.”  Determine  well  the 
point  of  beginning  and  termination,  the  direction  and  form  of  every  line,  before  you  touch  your 
paper.  Now  is  the  time  to  school  your  hand  to  this  habit  5 which,  when  once  acquired,  will 
render  progressive  studies  comparatively  easy,  and  hereafter  serve  you  well  in  your  attempts, 
however  far  you  may  pursue  the  Art  of  Drawing.  A manner  of  dashing  off  random  lines  or 


m 


touches,  as  if  in  search  of  the  true  line,  betrays  weakness  and  indecision  - — besides,  produces  a 
painful  display  of  the  labor  the  work  has  cost.  The  ease  apparent  in  the  sketch  of  a master- 
hand,  that  is  so  captivating,  is  the  result  of  absence  of  any  appearance  of  hesitation  or  doubt. 
If  any  were  felt,  in  its  execution,  it  is  a secret  known  only  to  the  artist  himself,  who  should 
always  possess  the  judgment  to  look  rather  to  results,  than  the  ostentatious  display  of  the  labor 
of  their  accomplishment.  The  examples  given  will  enable  the  student,  by  comparison,  better  to 
understand  what  is  to  be  avoided. 

20.  In  the  directions  hitherto  given,  with  regard  to  the  drawing  of  straight  fines,  the  ruled 
paper  afforded  a more  certain  guide  than  it  will  be  found  to  be  in  curves  and  irregular  forms. 
The  straight,  or  right  fine,  must  be  the  basis,  however,  upon  which  to  form  the  true  observation 
and  delineation  of  them.  A right  fine  is  certain  and  arbitrary  5 and,  according  to  the  variation 
of  curves  and  irregular  forms  from  a right  fine,  must  be  measured  their  irregularity  by  the  eye, 
and  also  expressed,  the  result  of  that  observation.  The  faculty  of  ascertaining  and  expressing 


20 


1’ 


1MARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


the  degree  and  character  of  these  variations,  is  a most  important  acquirement  in  drawing.  Here- 
after, in  its  proper  place,  more  will  be  said  in  reference  to  circles,  ovals,  etc.,  as  presenting  the 
motive  of  lines  and  forms  5 but,  it  is  important  that  the  pupil  should  go  step  by  step,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  master  one  difficulty  before  he  encounters  another. 


21.  Let  him  attempt  to  draw  the  most  simple  curve 


or  eccentric 


line 


and  he  will  find  it,  probably,  no  easy  task  to  perform  with  accuracy ; 


and  even  if  measurably  successful,  at  first,  to  repeat  it  may  be  more  difficult.  But,  if  he  has  a 


right  line  from  which  to  mark  the  variations 


becomes  comparatively  easy.  To  the  beginner,  a difficulty  naturally  will  arise  as  to  the  exist- 
ence of  these  right  lines  in  objects  in  nature.  The  eye,  by  practice  and  proper  education, 
learns  to  supply  this,  and  soon  becomes  accustomed  to  measure  irregular  forms  by  this  unerring 
standard.  At  present,  it  is  out  of  place  to  enter,  as  fully  as  may  be  hereafter  necessary,  into  the 
explanation  of  this  principle  in  Drawing  5 which  must  be  gradually  developed  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  pupil,  as  he  acquires  progressive  strength  in  the  training  of  his  eye  and  hand. 


22.  In  the  following  examples  for  practice,  the  ruled  paper  will  be  of  essential  advantage. 
Begin,  as  in  the  exercises  in  drawing  straight  lines,  by  marking  certain  points  along  the  ruled 
line  (5),  and  then  connect  these  points  by  curves  sweeping  at  first  to  the  middle  of  the  faint 


lines,  above 


and  below 


the  points  (example  a).  Repeat 


these  exercises  from  right  to  left,  as  well  as  from  left  - ' x to  right. 

It  is  important  that  sufficient  command  of  hand,  to  draw  lines  in  any  direction  with  equal  facility, 
should  be  early  acquired.  When  you  can  do  this  with  some  degree  of  ease  to  yourself,  as  well  as 
accuracy,  increase  the  distance  between  the  points,  as  b 5 and  after  that,  draw  a line  of  greater 
sweep  c d : and  so  on  proceed  with  the  rest  of  the  examples,  e is  but  a combination  of  what  you 
have  already  done  a ; and  e of  c d. — 1 k will  be  comparatively  easy  after  these,  as  well  as  l.  In 
examples  m n,  observe  well  the  movement  of  the  line  as  it  touches  the  six  faint  lines,  and  the 
points  it  marks  as  it  approaches  its  termination.  It  starts  on  the  first  ruled  line,  and,  making  a 
gradual  sweep,  turns  on  the  sixth,  moves  upward  to  nearly  half  way  between  the  first  and 
second : again  descends  to  half  way  between  the  fifth  and  sixth,  moves  upward  to  nearly  half 
way  between  the  second  and  third,  and  terminates  between  the  fourth  and  fifth.  In  example  n, 
(he  same  observation,  with  some  little  variation,  will  apply.  Endeavor,  in  the  imitation  of  these 


CURVED  LINES. 


21 


examples,  to  draw  them  with  a clear,  unbroken  line,  without  taking  the  pen  from  the  paper  until 
it  is  done.  Be  not  discouraged  at  repeated  failures,  but  try  again  and  again,  until  you  suc- 
ceed. You  doubtless  begin  to  find  that  you  require  more  than  the  command  of  your  fingers  in 
drawing  : your  wrist,  and  the  whole  arm,  must  be  brought  under  proper  government.  And  here, 
as  a valuable  assistant,  the  blackboard  can  not  be  too  strongly  recommended. 

23.  Drawing  on  the  blackboard  might  be  made  a profit- 
able exercise  and  subject  of  emulation  in  schools.  The  chalk 
should  be  placed  in  a long  port-crayon,  or  reed,  held  at  arm’s 
length  5 and  the  greater  part  of  the  examples  contained  in  these 
primary  instructions,  should  be  attempted  on  the  hoard — the 
larger  the  better.  The  examples  p r s t are  given  expressly 
with  a view  to  this.  Let  the  teacher  fix  the  points  ( o ),  if 
the  pupil  is  not  capable  of  doing  it.  The  pupil  then  should 
connect  the  points,  so  as  to  form  a square  ( s ) ; that  done,  let 
him  draw  the  circle  within  the  square — another  on  the  outside 


2 2 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


of  it  (p)  — and  then  try  his  hand  at  drawing  a circle  without  the  aid  of  the  square.  All  should 
be  done  without  rule  or  compass.  “The  compass  should  be  in  the  eye,”  was  the  axiom  of 
one  who  did  more,  and  achieved  more,  in  art,  than  any  mortal  man.  Hereafter,  in  the  study 
of  perspective  and  mathematical  drawing,  their  use  will  be  indispensable,  but  now  should  be 
avoided.  Remember  that  the  eye,  as  well  as  the  hand,  should  be  educated  $ and  to  educate, 
you  must  practise  and  trust  it. 

24.  A story  told  of  Giotto,  the  celebrated  Italian  painter,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  may  not  here  be  inappropriate.  “ When  Pope  Benedict  IX.  sent  to  Florence 
for  specimens  of  the  skill  of  the  artists  of  that  city,  his  messenger  came  to  Giotto,  and  told 
him  of  the  pope’s  intentions,  which  were,  to  employ  him  in  St.  Peter’s  church,  at  Rome,  and 
desired  him  to  send  some  design  by  him  to  His  Holiness,  by  which  he  might  judge  of  his  capacity. 
Giotto,  who  was  a pleasant  man,  took  a sheet  of  white  paper,  and  drew,  with  one  stroke  of  his 
pencil,  a circle  so  exactly,  that,  ‘ round  as  Giotto’s  O,’  became  a proverb.  Then,  presenting  it  to 
the  gentleman,  he  told  him  that  there  was  a piece  of  design  which  he  might  carry  to  His  Holiness. 
The  messenger  replied,  ‘I  ask  for  a design.’  — cGo,  sir,’  said  Giotto 5 ‘I  tell  you  His  Holiness  asks 

nothing  else  of  me.’  — Giotto  went  to  Rome .” 

This  artist,  who  stood  so  high  in  his  day,  whose 
works  are  so  justly  admired,  who  rose  to  the  esteem 
and  friendship  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,  whom  Dante  and  Petrarch  were 
proud  to  own  as  a friend,  to  whose  memory,  when 
dead,  the  city  of  Florence  erected  a statue,  was 
once  a poor  shepherd  boy  \ and,  while  tending  his 
sheep  in  the  field,  developed  the  talent  that  made 
him  what  he  became,  by  drawing  his  flock  in  the 
sand,  and  on  flat  stones. 

25.  Fathers  and  Teachers  — call  not  your  boys  idle  fellows,  when  you  find  them  drawing  in 
the  sand.  Give  them  chalk  and  pencil  — let  them  be  instructed  in  design.  “ But,”  you  say,  “ I 
do  not  want  my  boy  to  become  an  artist.”  Depend  upon  it,  he  will  plough  a straighter  furrow, 

and  build  a neater  and  better  fence,  and  the  hammer  or  the  axe  will  fit  his  hand  the  better 

j . . 

for  it : for  from  it,  no  matter  what  may  be  his  calling  in  life,  he  will  reap  advantage.  Last,  not 

l 

i©ast,  you  give  him  a source  of  intellectual  enjoyment,  of  which  no  change  of  fortune  can  deprive 


CURVED  LINES. 


23 


him,  and  that  may  secure  his  hours  of  leisure  from  the  baneful  influence  of  low  and  ignoble 
pursuits. 

26.  Again  having  recourse  to  the  double  set  of  ruled  lines  (11),  as  best  adapted  to  assist  the 
pupil  in  ascertaining  the  quantities  of  the  variations  of  the  forms  before  him,  as  well  as  drawing 
the  two  sides  of  an  object  alike,  but  little  more  is  required  than  to  give  a series  of  examples  for 
practice.  The  experience  he  has  already  had,  will  show  at  once  their  application. 


27.  The  pupil  may  now  lay  aside  his  ruled  paper,  and  hereafter  trust  more  to  himself.  It 
will  be  found;,  with  some,  that  little  difficulty  has  been  felt,  in  the  practice  and  understanding  of  the 
examples  thus  far  placed  before  them.  Even  to  those  who  may  have,  before  this  work  has  been 
placed  in  their  hands,  acquired  some  degree  of  facility  in  drawing,  profit  may  be  derived  from 
examining  the  primary  instructions  here  given.  It  often  happens  that  we  possess  an  acquirement, 
unconscious  of  the  means  by  which  it  has  been  obtained,  which  will  serve  us  to  a certain  extent, 
and  no  farther  \ which,  by  training,  by  strength  derived  from  right  discipline,  may  be  made  available 
to  the  highest  results.  This  faculty,  coming  as  a gift,  too  often  proves  an  allurement  from  a 


24 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


correct  and  systematic  course  of  study  5 and  thus  wonderful  boys  become  insignificant,  men,  while 
others,  of  less  actual  capacity,  get  the  start  of  them  in  a very  little  time,  and  soon  attain,  by  in- 
dustry, an  eminence  beyond  the  reach  of  indolent  talent.  Precocious  talent,  like  hot-bed  plants, 
rarely  matures  to  fruitfulness,  and,  like  them,  is  doomed  to  as  short  existence : which,  however 
brilliant,  bears  no  comparison  with  that  of  those  reared  in  the  fresh  air,  deep-rooted,  developed  by 
the  early  sun  and  showers  of  spring,  and  strengthened  to  resist  all  changes  and  seasons.  In  nothing 
is  this  more  apparent,  than  in  Design.  Where  extraordinary  talent  or  aptness  does  exist,  culti- 
vation becomes  more  essentially  necessary,  than  where  there  is  an  actual  deficiency.  Where  a 
want  is  felt,  a natural  instinct  impels  us  to  seek  the  surest  means  of  supplying  it ; and  to  persevere 
in  its  attainment  we  go  on  in  a progressive  system  of  acquirement,  until  it  becomes  a matter  of 
habit,  and  this  is  the  plain,  straight-forward  road  to  excellence,  in  which  toil  will  soon  give  place 
to  delight ; and  he  who  pursues  it,  will  go  farther  and  faster,  in  the  end,  than  one  who  dashes 
headlong  for  an  hour,  faints  at  the  first  hill,  or  loses  his  way  for  want  of  proper  observation  and 
knowledge  of  his  progress.  It  is  deplorable  that  much  real  talent  should  be  so  often  wasted 
for  want  of  judicious  and  systematic  cultivation,  and  not  unfrequently  perverted  from  a right 
course  by  the  incitement  of  partial  friends  and  experimental  advisers — too  eager  for  precocious 
results,  and  too  regardless  of  the  risks  of  heedless  precipitation  and  experiment,  ever  to  prove 
reliable  counselors  beyond  encouragement  and  incentive  to  commendable  and  beneficial  ambition. 
The  proverb  Poeta  nascitur  non  fit , is  as  often  inaptly  quoted  in  reference  to  artistic  as  poetic 
qualification.  If  men  are  born  with  capacities  for  poetry  or  art  beyond  the  mass  of  their  fellow- 
men,  they  must  still  be  made  poets  and  artists  by  study  and  education,  or  of  what  value 
are  such  gifts  of  nature  ? However  exalted  be  the  thought  or  imagination,  it  must  be  made 
to  assume  a shape  by  which  it  can  be  conveyed  and  understood  beyond  the  mind  in  which 
it  was  conceived.  Whether  words,  letters,  or  forms,  be  the  means  of  expression  employed, 
they  must  be  intelligible ; to  make  them  intelligible,  they  must  be  accurately  expressed,  in 
a language  not  to  be  mistaken ; and  that  accuracy  is  no  man’s  intuitive  possession.  It  is 
the  result  of  study — of  education. 

29.  In  the  example  next  presented,  the  principles  upon  which  the  primary  instructions  already 
given  have  been  based,  will  be  at  once  evident.  Take,  for  instance,  a form  as  simple  as  a 
common  wineglass.  To  draw  it  with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  without  the  aid  of  some  well- 
understood  principle,  will  prove  difficult,  even  to  many  who  are  already  familiar  with  the  use 
of  the  pen  or  pencil.  They  may  make  something  to  look  enough  like  a wineglass  for  any 


CURVED  LINES. 


25 


one  to  know  what  it  is  intended  for;  but  to 
draw  it  in  its  exact  proportions,  with  the  sweep 
of  the  outline  in  perfect  balance  on  either  side ; 
to  make  it  a true  representation  of  the  object, 
some  method  must  be  used.  Having  fixed 
upon  the  height  of  the  glass  a b,  decide  upon 
the  diameter  of  its  base  or  stand  d c,  and  that 
of  the  top  e f.  That  done,  you  have  sure 
starting  points ; and  nothing  more  remains,  to 
complete  the  outline,  than  first  determining, 
by  your  eye,  the  variation  of  the  curves  it 
presents  from  these  right  lines,  and  expressing 
them  exactly  as  you  have  already  done  in  the 
examples  before  given  (22).  With  the  straight 
fines  be — ef  to  guide  you,  the  gradual  taper 


-D( 


and  expansion  of  the  object  is  readily  expressed  by  one  clear  sweep,  easily  obtained  and  repeated. 


ations  of  all  the  curvatures  of 
4 


30.  The  first  and  greatest  difficulty  of  the  beginner  will  be  to  find  and  see  these  imaginary 
straight  fines  in  objects  presenting,  in  their  form  and  outline,  only  irregular  curves.  This  must  be 

acquired  by  training.  By  prac- 
tice and  observation,  the  eye 
will  soon  learn  to  find  them  out, 
without  mechanical  aid.  Let 
him,  as  a first  experiment,  for 
instance,  hold  a thread,  with  a 
slight  weight  attached  to  it,  at 
arm’s  length,  between  him  and 
an  ordinary  water-pitcher,  or 
ewer,  and  he  will  at  once  see 
all  the  perpendicular  fines  he 
desires,  drawn,  as  it  were,  against 
the  pitcher  by  the  thread.  They 
will  show  him  the  relative  vari- 


26 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


the  outline  as  distinctly  as  if  drawn  on  paper,  and  as  easy  of  imitation.  He  will  not  only  have 
a guide  in  drawing  the  sweep  of  the  outline  correctly,  but,  also,  in  marking  the  true  proportions 
of  the  object.  He  will  find  the  line  d produced  by  the  thread,  drawn,  as  it  were,  against  the 
pitcher,  touching  its  lip  and  greatest  circumference  ; while  b and  c,  in  like  manner,  serve  to 
show  the  relative  proportion  of  the  stand  or  base  to  the  neck,  a,  corresponding  to  d,  gives  him 
something  to  go  by,  in  producing  the  general  form  with  relative  regularity,  and  marks  the 
variation,  first  seen  where  the  handle  begins.  It  then  serves  to  ascertain  the  true  form  of  the 
handle,  as  well  as  to  designate  the  place  of  its  lower  joining  with  the  pitcher.  Thus,  to  show 
the  principle.  A thread  and  weight  are  not  always  at  hand  5 and  if  they  were,  they  do  not 
serve  as  well  as  the  instrument  with  which  we  draw.  Hold  a pencil  at  arm’s  length,  look  along 

its  outline,  and  in  like  manner  you  may 
readily  ascertain  the  bearing,  not  only 
of  the  perpendicular  lines,  but  of  any 
others  you  may  desire,  either  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  your  outline,  or  of 
proving  it  after  it  has  been  drawn.  You 
can  thus,  in  a measure,  be  your  own  master,  and  correct  your  own  mistakes.  You  may  not  see 
the  practical  draughtsman  have  recourse  to  such  expedients  5 but,  nevertheless,  he  is  governed  by 
the  same  principles.  He  sees,  at  a glance,  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  one  another.  Although 
he  does  not  draw  the  perpendicular  lines,  he  sees  that  the  swell  of  the  largest  circumference  of  the 
object  before  him  extends  no  farther  than  a perpendicular  line,  drawn  from  the  lip,  would  touch. 
He  sees  that  where  the  base  is  united  to  the  pitcher,  it  is  just  as  wide  as  at  the  neck.  He  sees 
the  base  is  a little  wider.  He  marks  all  these  points  5 if  not  on  his  paper,  they  are  mentally 
before  him ; and  he  produces,  with  apparent  ease,  a correct  drawing  of  the  object,  so  just  in 
all  its  proportions,  that  a potter  shall  produce  a fac-simile  of  the  pitcher,  from  the  drawing. 
Such  facility  any  one  of  ordinary  capacity  may  acquire,  who  will  take  the  pains  and  study 
required. 


31.  Let  it  not  be  understood,  in  saying  this,  that  every  one  can  learn  to  draw  like  Michael 
Angelo,  or  compose  with  the  grace  and  charm  of  Raphael,  any  more  than  he  who  writes  with 
grammatical  accuracy,  can,  therefore,  write  like  Shakespeare.  There  is  a barrier  that  none  can 
pass,  who  are  not  the  gifted  children  of  genius.  Such  men  may  have  shone  less  brilliant  in  the 
first  steps  of  that  knowledge,  by  means  of  which  they  achieved  their  greatness,  than  many  a 
school-fellow  — 


CURVED  LINES. 


27 


“ with  his  satchel 

And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school,”  — 

whose  fame  ended  in  the  village  church-yard,  or  the  memory  of  a few  short  years.  Although 
the  seeds  of  knowledge  fell  on  a soil  that  was  not  warmed  by  the  fire  of  genius,  and  brought 
forth  but  their  usual  harvest  of  every-day  utility  to  their  possessor,  yet  was  that  knowledge  no 
less  valuable  to  him,  because  he  had  not  the  power  to  use  it,  as  it  was  used  by  the  more  highly 
gifted  companion  of  his  youth  — building  upon  it  an  imperishable  fame,  and  blessing  the  world 
with  rich  gifts,  to  live  for  ever  in  its  memory. 


32.  It  is  now  time  for  the  pupil  to  look  to  nature  for  objects  to  exercise  his  skill,  and  to 
endeavor  to  apply  the  instructions  he  has  received,  practically.  Let  him  lay  before  him  a leaf 


of  the  simplest  form,  and  attempt  to  draw  it.  Having  carefully  studied  its  proportions,  the 
directions  and  terminations  of  its  principal  lines,  and  decided  on  them,  as  above  shown,  by  a 
sort  of  diagram,  or  generalized  idea,  he  should  then  proceed  to  draw  in  the  outline,  with  all  the 
features  and  variations  of  the  original.  In  doing  this,  all  appearance  of  straight  lines  and  angles 
should  be  avoided.  There  are  none  in  the  original,  and  there  should  be  none  used  in  its  repre- 
sentation, beyond  their  application  in  assisting  him,  in  his  early  efforts,  to  fix  the  points  and 
proportions  in  their  proper  places  and  relation  to  each  other.  Even  these  must  be  dispensed 
with,  as  soon  as  the  eye  and  hand  can  be  taught  to  work  without  them; 


28 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


33.  The  preceding  example  of  a grape-leaf  may  be  found  more  difficult  at  the  first  trial,  from 
the  irregularity  of  the  outline.  By  keeping  in  view,  however,  the  general  movement  of  the  line, 
after  a little  practice,  the  pupil  will  find  the  difficulty  gradually  decrease,  and  he  will  be  able  to 
draw  it  with  accuracy,  with  regard  both  to  its  general  form  and  detail. 


34.  Many  have  found  this  principle  of  working  from  straight  lines,  serve  them  so  well,  that 
they  have  been  led  to  its  abuse,  by  extending  it  beyond  its  proper  application  5 and  their 
drawings  present  more  the  appearance  of  an  angular  congelation  of  crystals,  or  irregular  brick- 
work, than  the  easy,  flowing  lines,  that  abound  in  objects  of  nature. 


Even  in  the  sketches  of  artists  of  eminence,  this  manner  is  often  perceptible,  from  the  habit 
they  have  of  massing,  or  blocking  out,  as  it  were,  their  figures  \ which,  however  allowable  and 
proper  in  a master-hand,  is,  nevertheless,  to  be  avoided  by  the  beginner,  until  he  acquires  sufficient 
strength  and  knowledge  to  hold  a master’s  pencil.  When  once  he  possesses  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  design  to  be  able  to  express  a thought,  unconscious  of  the  method  by  which 
he  does  it,  with  a hand  and  eye  in  perfect  obedience  to  his  conception,  it  matters  little  what  his 
manner  is.  It  will  always  be  intelligible.  Then  he  may  dash  as  he  pleases,  and  even  the  most 
random  line  will  be  to  the  purpose.  But  this  facility  can  only  be  acquired  by  systematic  accuracy 
in  the  beginning.  The  man  who  would  ride  a race  must  be  used  to  the  saddle,  or  he  risks 
its  loss,  as  well  as  his  neck,  in  the  attempt. 


35.  Before  closing  these  Primary  Instructions,  let  it  be  understood,  that,  although  all  may 
derive  advantage  from  their  perusal,  they  are  especially  intended  for  those  who  have  as  yet  made 
no  advancement  in  drawing.  Their  purpose  is  to  show  an  easy  and  certain  course  by  which 
any  one  may  make  a beginning,  and  qualify  his  hand  and  eye  to  enter  upon  the  broader  field 


DRAWING  MATERIALS. 


29 


that  lies  before  him.  The  want  of  knowledge  of  the  proper  means  of  making  a beginning,  has 
prevented  many  from  attempting  the  art  of  drawing,  while  others  have  regarded  it  as  a mys- 
tery, only  to  be  reached  by  a gifted  few.  It  is  time  this  delusion  should  be  dispelled.  There 
are  no  secrets  in  aid  that  can  not  be  attained  by  those  who  will  take  the  pains  necessary  to  their 
acquirement  5 and  although,  as  has  been  before  said,  all  must  not  expect  to  rival  those,  who,  aided 
by  the  gift  of  genius,  have  achieved  such  wonders  by  its  means,  yet  the  profit  and  pleasure  that 
will  be  their  reward,  however  far  they  may  extend  the  pursuit,  are  well  worth  the  trial.  That  a 
sense  bestowed  upon  us  by  the  Creator,  susceptible  of  so  much  real  benefit,  as  well  as  enjoyment, 
a capacity  belonging  exclusively  to  the  human  mind,  should  lie  buried  for  want  of  cultivation,  is 
a sad  reflection  — one  that  well  deserves  the  serious  consideration  of  Parents  and  Teachers, 
who  are  called  upon  at  once  to  set  about  the  work  of  reformation.  Surely  they  will  not  hesi- 
tate, when  no  great  sacrifice  of  personal  convenience  is  asked  of  them.  Let  them  look  back 
on  their  own  lives,  and  see  what  they  have  lost  for  want  of  this  cultivation  5 they  will  see  much, 
but  the  real  extent  of  their  loss  they  can  not  know  5 for,  without  that  faculty  of  just  perception 
imparted  by  a knowledge  of  design,  we  walk  through  life  as  one  blindfolded.  It  may  not  be  too 
late  to  try  themselves  5 the  germ  may  yet  exist,  though  long  buried  and  neglected.  If  the  spring- 
time of  life  is  passed,  and  the  summer  is  on  the  wane,  it  may  yet  be  made  to  bear  some  fruit  well 
worth  the  culture.  If  nothing  more,  the  trial  will  prove  to  them  the  value  of  what  they  have  lost 
by  neglect,  and  they  will  earnestly  look  to  the  better  instruction  of  their  children  and  those  under 
their  charge.  Instead  of  interfering  with  other  branches  of  education,  drawing  can  be  made  to 
assist  most  essentially  in  their  advancement.  Who  thinks  of  teaching  geography  without  a map  ? — 
and  a map  is  a picture.  The  world  is  presented  to  the  mind  of  a child  by  the  map.  To  coun- 
tries, cities,  seas,  and  rivers,  are  given  forms  j and  thus  he  remembers  them.  How  much  more 
impressive  would  these  forms  be,  if  he  were  taught  to  draw  them.  Pictures  and  Design  may  be 
made,  if  properly  applied,  valuable  assistants  to  the  teacher  in  all  the  departments  of  learning, 
from  the  primer  upward  — even  to  the  classical  and  higher  studies  of  our  high  schools  and 
colleges.  The  tasks  of  the  school-bench  would  thus  become  less  arduous,  and  their  benefits 
more  enduring,  while  a purifying  taste  would  be  at  the  same  time  a natural  result  5 for  it  is 
impossible  that  a mind,  thus  trained,  should  not  early  be  capable  of  just  discrimination,  the  basis, 
not  only  of  true  taste,  but  of  all  that  refines  and  elevates  the  moral  excellence  of  man. 

S 

36.  As  yet,  nothing  has  been  said  of  the  materials  used  in  drawing,  because  it  is  a matter 
of  little  importance  what  instrument  is  employed  in  the  beginning.  Giotto’s  stick  for  a pencil, 
and  the  sand  for  his  paper,  were  as  good  an  outfit  as  he  needed.  A piece  of  charcoal,  or  chalk, 


30 


P R I M A it  Y INSTRUCTIONS. 


and  the  barn-door,  have  served  many  as  well  ; while  others,  who  have  accumulated  a complete 
magazine  of  materials  and  patent  nostrums,  have  done  nothing  else.  The  hand  and  eye  that 
direct  it,  not  the  instrument  itself,  must  be  the  strong  reliance  of  the  draughtsman.  He  should 
early  learn  to  consider  his  tools  as  of  secondary  consideration,  and  to  supply  them  as  he  feels 
their  want  and  his  capacity  to  use  them.  Instead,  therefore,  of  giving  at  once  a long  catalogue 
of  materials  used  in  drawing,  such  as  are  progressively  required  by  the  student,  will  be  men- 
tioned in  their  places. 

37.  The  Pen  is  placed  first,  because  it  may  be  justly  considered  the  most  sevriceable 
instrument  for  the  general  purposes  of  Design,  and  if  its  use  were  properly  understood,  it  would 

~'A  ’n  the  hands  of  draughtsmen.  It  is  always  at  hand,  gives  a certain  and 
indelible  line,  <um'  _ ffng  the  most  finished  effects.  If  all  who  write  pos- 

sessed the  power  to  express  what  they  desire  by  design,  when  the  resources  of  language  fail, 
what  a new  charm  would  be  added  to  the  epistolary  intercourse  of  friends; — how  much  richer 
and  more  valuable  would  be  the  traveller’s  journal  — the  lucubrations  of  the  man  of  science; 
and  the  page  of  poetry  would  present  visions  from  the  world  of  fancy  in  all  the  purity  of  their 
original  conception.  Thus  would  the  worth  of  this  familiar  instrument  be  fully  developed,  if  we 
would  only  take  the  pains  to  acquire  a command  of  it.  That  one  capable  of  describing  a scene, 
whether  of  reality  or  of  the  creation  of  the  mind,  so  truly,  that  another  can  make  a picture  from 
it,  could  not  draw  it  himself  with  greater  truth,  if  he  had  been  as  well  educated  in  design  as  in 
letters,  is  as  certain  as,  that,  if  he  possessed  this  two-fold  power  of  expression,  he  would  natu- 
rally be  led  to  use  each  as  they  could  be  made  in  their  turn  most  subservient  to  his  purpose. 
The  author  and  designer  would  thus  be  one  ; and  with  the  facilities  that  exist  of  reproducing 
and  printing  designs,  as  readily  as  letters,  the  limits  to  which  the  influence  of  the  pen  may  be 
extended,  are  beyond  conception. 

38.  The  best  pens  for  fine  and  finished  drawings  were  formerly  made  of  crow-quills ; while, 
for  larger  and  bolder  works,  the  ordinary  goose-quill,  and  even  reed,  have  been  employed.  The  late 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  and  other  metallic  pens,  have,  in  a great  measure, 
taken  their  places ; and  these  may  be  generally  employed  by  the  draughtsman,  who,  by  trial,  will 
soon  learn  which  kind  best  suits  his  purposes.  Many,  however,  have  not  the  advantages,  enjoyed 
by  those  who  reside  in  the  cities,  of  a variety  from  which  their  selections  may  be  made ; and 
after  all,  in  many  instances,  they  may  require  to  make  their  own  pens ; which  they  should  be 
capable  of  doing,  under  any  circumstances. 


DRAWING  MATERIALS. 


31 


39.  The  quill  should  be  scraped  on  the  side  where  the  split  is  intended,  first  toward  the 
point,  and  then  backward,  more  or  less  according  to  the  flexibility  of  the  nib  required  ; then 


on  the  spot 


where  you  desire  the  split  to  stop,  which  its  pressure  will  effect,  start  the  split  slightly  with 
your  knife,  and  run  it  up  the  quill  by  a touch  with  the  thumb-nail  of  your  right  hand,  or  the 
uncut  end  of  another  quill.  The  general  rule  is,  to  cut  the  shoulders  the  length  of  the  split, 
and  for  writing,  it  is  a good  one  5 but  in  drawing,  it  is  necessary  to 
vary  from  it,  and  to  suit  the  length  and  shape  of  the  nib  to  the  use 
for  which  it  is  required.  The  right  nib,  as  you  hold  the  pen,  should 
be  a little  longer  than  the  other,  to  produce  a delicate  line  5 and  often  }/  \ 

it  may  be  requisite  to  increase  its  sharpness,  by  slightly  trimming 
the  point  in  front,  as  figured.  A little  practice  will  soon  teach  you,  not  only  to  know  what  sort 
of  pen  you  require,  but  to  make  one  to  suit  yourself,  as  well  as  render  you  capable  of  exercising 
proper  judgment  in  selecting  steel  or  other  pens. 


40.  The  best  Ink,  for  nice  purposes,  is  Chinese  or  Indian  ink,  rubbed  down  with  water,  to 
the  proper  degree  of  fluidity,  in  a small  saucer  or  cup,  or  it  may  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  kept 
ready  for  use  in  a closely-stopped  bottle  or  inkstand.  It  is  also  sold  in  a fluid  state,  chemically 
prepared  to  prevent  its  becoming  mouldy.  It  is  always  best,  when  it  can  be  procured  as  im- 
ported direct  from  China.  There  is  no  economy  in  purchasing  an  inferior  article  : a stick  of 
it  will  last  a long  time,  and  is  not  worse  for  age.  The  best  quality  is  generally  strongly  scented 
with  musk.  Common  writing  ink,  for  ordinary  purposes,  and  for  beginners,  answers  very  well : 
it  should  be  perfectly  black.  Extremely  fluid  and  flowing  ink,  however  favorable  in  writing, 
will  be  found  in  drawing  often  troublesome,  as  well  by  its  unequal  or  over-requisite  supply  from 
the  pen,  as  not  drying  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  prevent  crossed  and  adjacent  lines  from  run- 
ning together.  Metallic,  and  all  other  pens,  should  be  wiped  clean,  after  use,  and  laid  away 
carefully.  Pens  frequently,  by  accidental  wear,  acquire  a peculiarly  delicate  and  serviceable 


32 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


point,  that  should  be  preserved,  as  it  will  be  often  found  no  easy  matter  to  obtain  it  so  well 
in  a new  one,  when  wanted. 

41.  Sepia  is  of  a rich  brown  tint,  resembling  very  closely  Indian  ink,  in  its  working  qualities, 
and  flowing  freely  from  both  pen  and  pencil.  This  pigment  is  named  after  the  sepia , or  cuttle- 
fish, which  is  called  also  the  ink-fish , from  its  affording  a dark  liquid  used  as  an  ink  by  the 
ancients.  The  Roman  sepia,  prepared  in  cakes,  has  the  best  reputation  5 and  it  is  rarely  met 
with  of  inferior  quality,  — its  cheapness  leaves  no  inducement  for  its  adulteration. 

42.  Black-Lead  Pencils  are  in  most  general  use  as  instruments  for  drawing  5 and  are  not 
only  valuable,  from  their  convenience,  for  sketching  from  nature,  but  well  adapted  for  highly-finished 
drawings,  being  capable  of  producing  the  most  delicate,  as  well  as  the  most  intense  shades  and 
tints.  The  best  sort  should  always  be  purchased.  The  quality  of  black-lead  pencils  can  be 
easily  tested.  When  pure,  the  lead  will  be  found  to  cut  freely  on  two  opposite  sides,  and  harder 
on  the  other  two.  In  using  such  pencils,  the  draughtsman  can,  by  turning  the  pencil  as  he 
desires,  produce  a light  or  dark  line.  Beginners  are  generally  too  fond  of  using  -the  knife, 
and  often,  by  its  awkward  application,  sacrifice  a whole  pencil,  before  they  get  a point 
to  suit  them.  The  wood  should  first  be  cut  away  with  a sharp  knife,  scarcely  touching  the 

lead  ’ an<^  ^en’  ins^ead  °f  cutting  away  the  lead  downward,  toward 

the  point,  which  is  the  common  practice,  trim  it  upward, 
being  at  the  same  time  careful  of  cutting  away  the  lead  near 
the  wood,  or  it  may  be  so  much  weakened  as  to  break  off  at 
the  first  touch  made  on  the  paper.  A small  flat  file  is  a still 
better  instrument  than  a knife,  and  should  always  be  used  with  an  upward  and  very  slight 

stroke.  Extremely  sharp  points  to  pencils  are, 
however,  unnecessary.  A practised  draughtsman 
manages  to  keep  his  pencil  in  order,  by  occa- 
sionally turning  it  so  as  to  preserve  it  partly  blunf 
for  tints,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  an  edge  for  a 
sharp  touch,  when  desired. 

43.  The  best  black-lead  pencils  in  use  are  those  made  of  pure  Cumberland  lead,  cut  into 
strips,  and  enclosed  in  red  cedar.  When  proper  care  has  been  taken  by  the  manufacturer,  in 


DRAWING  MATERIALS. 


33 


assorting  the  leads  according  to  their  hardness,  the  draughtsman  will  soon  learn  to  know  by 
their  marks  the  kind  he  requires.  Those  marked  h,  hb,  f,  and  ef,  serve  best  for  sketching, 
general  drawing,  and  outlines  5 and  those  marked  b,  bb,  and  ehb,  for  shading  5 while  hhh,  and 
h h h h,  are  best  adapted  for  architectural  drawings  and  designing  on  wood  for  engravers.  The 
compressed  plumbago  has  recently  in  a great  measure  superseded  the  native  material. 

44.  There  are  other  inferior  kinds  of  pencils,  that  come  mostly  from  Germany  and  France, 
which  serve  for  many  purposes  even  better  than  those  made  of  pure  plumbago.  They  are  made 
of  a composition  that  can  not  be  erased  with  Indian  rubber  as  readily  as  the  others  5 and,  from 
that  fact,  drawings  made  with  them  are  less  liable  to  be  rubbed  out,  or  injured  in  handling.  Many 
object  to  them  on  this  account  5 but  the  less  the  student  of  drawing  has  to  do  with  Indian 
rubber,  and  the  sooner  he  learns  to  do  without  it,  the  better.  They  do  not  produce  such  deli- 
cate tints  and  gradations,  but,  nevertheless,  are  serviceable.  They  work  best  on  paper  that  is 
rather  rough,  or  that  has,  what  artists  call,  a good  tooth.  On  unsized  paper,  such  as  is  used  for 
copperplate  printing,  they  will  be  found  to  work  admirably.  Their  numbers,  generally  from 
1 to  5,  indicate  their  degree  of  hardness.  Practice  and  experience  will  soon  make  the  draughts- 
man familiar  with  their  power  and  use. 

45.  A small  box,  made  of  paper  or  some  light  substance,  should  be  kept  on  the  drawing-table, 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  cuttings  of  pencils  or  crayons.  A habit  of  neatness  should  be 
early  inculcated.  Many  a drawing  has  been  spoiled,  and  the  pupil  made  ashamed  of  it,  for  want 
of  proper  attention  in  this  particular. 

46.  The  French  Crayon  is  much  used  in  making  finished  drawings.  It  can  be  procured 
of  various  degrees  of  hardness,  should  be  pointed,  and  used  much  in  the  manner  of  the  black- 
lead  pencil.  It  does  not  work  well  on  smooth  paper,  requires  a port-crayon  to  hold  it,  and 
is  most  easily  erased  by  a pellet  of  stale  bread,  or  prepared  indian  rubber.  The  French 
crayon  may  be  very  effectively  employed  on  tinted  paper. 

47.  The  pupil  being  now  in  possession  of  sufficient  materials  for  commencing  the  Rudiments 
of  Drawing,  the  necessity  of  going  to  work  not  too  hurriedly  is  urged  upon  him.  Consider  well 
what  you  have  to  do,  before  you  begin.  Endeavor  to  make  not  a line  or  touch  that  is  not  to 
the  purpose.  If  you  can  not  satisfy  yourself  on  the  first  trial,  be  not  disappointed,  but  try 
again — and  again.  Recall  to  mind  the  errors  you  have  made  in  the  first  attempts;  keep  them 

5 


;n 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTIONS. 


by  you,  that  you  may  often  refer  to  them.  In  your  next  trial  you  will  do  better.  You  will 
have  advanced  a certain  step  5 and  onward  will  be  your  progress,  as  surely  as  you  persevere. 
Never  fatigue  yourself  over  your  drawing.  The  moment  you  work  without  a will,  it  should  be 
laid  aside. 

48.  Last,  though  not  of  least  importance,  let  it  be  urged  upon  the  pupil  early  to  acquire  a 
good  position  in  drawing.  It  should  be  easy,  and  in  no  way  painful  to  the  chest.  There  is  no 
necessity  for  leaning  over  your  work  in  an  ungraceful  or  painful  attitude.  The  eye  should  be, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  directly  opposite  the  centre  of  your  drawing.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give 
directions  as  to  the  manner  of  holding  your  pen  or  pencil.  Your  own  judgment  must  direct 
you  as  to  that.  It  matters  little,  so  that  you  feel  the  instrument  fit  your  fingers  easily.  If  proper 
attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  primary  instructions  given,  you  have  already  learned  the 
importance  of  depending,  not  solely  on  your  fingers,  but  also  on  the  action  of  the  wrist  and  arm. 
The  hand  should  not  be  suffered  to  rest  on  the  paper  on  which  you  are  drawing,  if  it  can  be 
avoided  5 but  have  a spare  piece  to  lay  under  it,  while  at  work.  It  will  serve  another  purpose  — 
to  try  the  points  of  your  pens,  pencils,  crayons,  or  tints  upon.  Begin  at  once  your  portfolio. 
Even  when  you  have  failed  in  any  attempt,  you  should  keep  it  by  you.  Destroy  nothing  that 
you  do,  and  you  will  soon  learn  to  do  nothing  you  would  desire  to  destroy.  Preserve  order  in 
the  disposition  of  all  your  materials : much  time  and  vexation  may  be  saved  by  it  5 and,  above 
all  things,  remember,  whatever  is  worth  doing,  is  worth  doing  well. 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING 

THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


THE 


— If  we  wish  to  ascend  to  the  top  cf  an 
edifice,  we  must  he  content  to  advance  step 
by  step,  otherwise  we  shall  never  be  able  to 
attain  it  " — Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

HE  first  impulse  of  all  beginners 
is  to  attempt  the  delineation  of 
the  human  face,  and  generally  as 
seen  in  profile,  because  it  is  easi- 
er thus  to  express  the  actual  form 
of  the  features;  — and,  there  is 
no  object  in  nature  on  which  the  early  efforts  of  the  student  of  design  can  be  more  deservedly 
and  profitably  bestowed.  In  nothing  else  are  combined  so  many  elements  of  beauty  and  expres- 
sion, such  established  and  well-defined  principles  of  form,  and  happy  adaptation  of  that  form  to 
purpose  — in  short,  such  perfection  of  Design  — and  he  that  can  draw  the  head  with  accuracy 
and  knowledge,  in  all  its  details,  is  a master  of  the  art.  As  a general  standard  of  beauty  and 
expression,  the  conception  of  man  reaches  to  nothing  beyond  it.  In  his  dreams  of  angels  and 
beatified  spirits  he  can  go  no  higher,  and  the  demons  of  the  imaginary  world  bear  its 
impress,  however  distorted  or  debased.  Always  before  us,  always  subject  to  our  scrutiny  and 
observation,  always  exciting  a deep  interest  and  best  remembered  of  all  other  objects,  possessing 


85 


36 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


in  itself  the  great  and  leading  principles  of  design  so  admirably  developed,  it  should  call  forth  the 
earliest  and  most  devoted  study  of  the  draughtsman.  No  matter  what  may  be  his  purpose  in  the 
study  of  design  he  must  learn  to  draw  the  human  figure. 

50.  What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  drawing  curved  and  eccentric  lines  is  most  forcibly 
applicable  to  drawing  the  figure,  for  there  is  not  to  be  found  one  straight  line  throughout  the  whole 
wonderful  structure  of  animated  creation.  Without  some  standard  by  which  to  form  the  judgment 
and  direct  the  hand  in  the  delineation  of  such  forms,  which  are  often  so  delicately  marked  as  to 
escape  the  notice  of  the  student,  in  his  early  efforts,  he  labors  in  the  dark,  and  more  often  succeeds 
by  chance  than  by  that  knowledge  which  alone  can  insure  repeated  success,  and  secure 
that  capacity  for  advanced  achievement  only  thus  to  be  obtained.  On  chance  no  re 
liance  should  be  placed  \ it  may  serve  once  and  never  again  ; and  a success  thus  achieved 
often  brings  with  it  more  injurious  consequences  than  a failure,  by  creating  a fictitious  confidence, 
from  which  we  are  unwilling  to  descend  to  the  study  of  the  first  principles,  the  grammar  of  the 
art.  Let  the  student  be  reminded  of  the  maxim  of  Leonardo  da  Yinci  that,  “in  order  to  acquire 
a true  notion  of  the  form  of  things,  he  must  begin  by  studying  the  parts  which  compose  them, 
and  not  pass  to  a second  till  he  has  well  stored  his  memory,  and  sufficiently  practised  the 
first:  otherwise,  he  loses  his  time,  and  will  most  certainly  protract  his  studies — and  let  him 
remember  to  acquire  accuracy  before  he  attempts  quickness.” 

51.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  draw  an  object  before  him,  but  he  should 
understand  and  learn  to  remember  its  form  and  character.  Let  him  not  deceive  himself  with  the 
idea  that  he  is  doing  m«ch  when  he  is  filling  his  portfolio  with  hasty,  unfinished,  and  unstudied 
sketches.  Sketching  is  to  art  what  short-hand  notes  are  to  writing  and  equally  valuable ; 
but  we  should  no  more  think  of  teaching  drawing  by  the  one  than  writing  by  the  other.  One 
single  effort  executed  with  care  and  study  is  worth  all  the  time  and  labor  bestowed  upon  it, 
and  will  in  the  end  more  surely  promote  his  certain  advancement.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the 
pen  is  so  strongly  recommended  as  the  best  instrument  for  the  beginner.  Its  use  may  present 
difficulties,  at  first,  but  he  who  is  earnest  in  his  desire  to  become  a proficient  draughtsman,  may 
rest  assured  that  this  commonplace  instrument  can  do  him  more  good  service  than  any  other. 
The  precision  and  facility  of  hand  and  certainty  of  touch  that  he  will  acquire  by  its  early  and 
single  use  will  enable  him  to  wield  the  crayon  or  the  brush,  the  graver  or  the  modelling  tool,  the 
chisel  or  the  hammer,  hereafter,  with  a command  that  will  amply  repay  the  labor  of  his  present 
efforts  to  become  familiar  with  it.  Is  his  hand  tremulous  and  disobedient  to  his  will,  the  pen  will 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


37 


make  it  firm  and  well-trained  j and  nerved  to  its  use,  he  will  possess  an  unlimited  command  of  all 
other  instruments.  The  pen  admits  of  no  indecision.  We  are  compelled  to  consider  well  what  is 
to  be  done,  and  then  to  do  it  with  an  unerring  line  or  touch  — and  a failure  can  only  be  remedied 
by  retracing  our  steps  and  another  attempt.  That  failure  is  a lesson  not  soon  forgotten,  and 
many  such  will  soon  induce  a habit  of  accuracy  which  is  rarely  acquired  through  the  tangled 
confusion  of  lead  pencil  and  Indian  rubber.  What  is  done  with  the  pen  can  be  done  again,  and 
there  lies  one  of  the  great  secrets  of  excellence  in  design. 

52.  As  the  easiest  to  draw,  and  that  which,  probably,  will  show 
most  clearly  to  the  pupil  the  principles  upon  which  he  must  rely 
for  accuracy,  let  him  begin  with  a full  or  front  view  of  the 
Mouth  j and  before  making  any  attempt  at  expression  he  should 
become  familiar  with  the  actual  form  of  the  features,  and  be 
capable  of  delineating  them  knowingly.  The  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  get  the  beautiful  line  produced  by  the  meeting  of  the 
lips.  On  a straight  line  first  indicate  the  width  of  the  mouth, 
and  then  the  centre,  either  by  dots  or  faint  lines ; (8)  then  pro- 
ceed to  express  these  points  with  due  reference  to  the  true  form 
of  the  object ; after  which  indicate  in  the  same  way  the  thickness 
of  the  lips,  etc.  This  done  with  care  and  precision,  to  connect 
the  points  and  to  produce  a correct  outline  according  to  the  form 
of  the  object  you  are  imitating  (22)  will  be  found  comparatively 
easy  5 and  with  a correct  outline  you  have  a sure  foundation  upon 
which  to  proceed  in  the  completion  of  your  drawing.  Before 
advancing  farther,  however,  the  trial  should  be  repeated,  until  the 
pupil  is  able  to  dispense  with  the  straight  lines  and  to  produce  an 
outline  without  their  assistance,  beyond  their  imaginary  existence,  by 
which  he  will  soon  learn  to  preserve  the  proportions  and  the  relations 
of  the  parts  as  readily  as  if  they  were  drawn  on  his  paper.  This 
step  at  off-hand  drawing,  should  be  carefully  taken,  practised,  and  studied  5 for  the  same  method 
and  principles  are  applicable  to  the  correct  delineation  of  all  objects.  Should  the  pupil  grow 
weary  in  his  efforts  to  attain  a correct  outline  in  this  example  and  feel  discouraged  by  repeated 
failures,  let  him  as  a relaxation  try  the  outline  of  any  one  or  more  of  those  that  follow,  without 
attempting  to  express  the  shadows.  With  many  this  page  may  be  remembered  as  one  of 


38 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


trial,  but  according  with  the  recollection  of  it,  will  be  the  ease  or  difficulty  of  their  progress 
hereafter. 


53.  Having  succeeded  in  becoming  proficient  in  drawing  a correct  outline,  next  proceed  to 
express  the  shadows  that  give  rotundity,  and  farther  develop  the  form  of  the  mouth.  Begin  with 

the  most  distinct  and  prominent  markings  5 they  will  serve  as  a 
basis  upon  which  to  elaborate  and  express  more  minute  detail  and 
finish,  as  well  as  to  make  you  familiar  with  the  actual  formation  of 
the  object  of  imitation,  and  induce  a systematic  habit  of  study 
as  well  as  execution,  which  are  both  of  much  importance  to 
beginners.  With  regard  to  expressing  tints  by  lines,  what  has  been  before  said  (13  and  19) 
may  be  recalled  to  mind,  and  the  pupil  should  not  attempt  to  finish  .up  a drawing,  until  he  is  in 
a measure  perfect  in  each  progressive  step.  In  the  following  examples,  is  shown  the  method  of 
proceeding  gradually  with  a drawing,  and  it  is  advisable  that  this,  as  well  as  each  progressive 
example,  should  be  practised  over  and  over  again,  until  not  only  facility  in  its  imitation  is 
attained,  but  the  method  by  which  that  imitation  is  produced  is  thoroughly  understood. 


54.  The  directions  with  regard  to  this  example  have  been  thus  fully  given,  and  their  impor- 
tance especially  urged,  because  of  their  application  to  those  that  follow,  subject  only  to  such 
variations  as  the  peculiar  form  of  the  different  features  may  require  in  their  delineation.  Difficulty 
may  be  felt,  in  the  first  attempts,  in  expressing  the  shadows,  as  well  as  in  obtaining  a correct  outline, 
as  the  delicacy  of  hand  and  precision  of  touch  requisite  to  their  expression,  are  only  to  be 
acquired  by  care  and  practice.  To  become  a good  draughtsman  this  difficulty  must  be  mastered, 
and  it  must  be  done  now  — in  the  beginning  — when  it  is  less  formidable.  Should  the  pupil 
in  his  anxiety  to  go  forward,  find  it  irksome  to  devote  the  time  and  patience  to  these  rudimental 
studies  that  may  be  required,  he  may  rely  upon  it,  he  will  soon  find  himself  involved  in  greater 
difficulties,  from  which  it  may  not  be  easy  for  him  to  extricate  himself.  This  injudicious  hurrying 
forward  has  done  much  harm  to  education  in  design,  by  bringing  disgust  rather  than  delight  in  its 
pursuit.  Never  leave  a difficulty  behind  you  that  you  have  not  overcome,  and  those  that  lie  before 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


39 


will  be  no  longer  formidable.  Presuming  the  pupil  to  be  in  earnest  in  the  business,  and  anxious 
that  he  should  early  learn  to  rely  somewhat  upon  his  own  judgment  as  well  as  intelligence,  let  us 
place  before  him  the  following  examples  in  delineating  the  features,  which  he  should  carefully  study 
and  learn  to  draw,  with  some  degree  of  facility,  before  he  attempts  to  combine  them  together  in  the 
perfect  head.  To  the  principles  of  Design,  of  Form,  of  Grace,  and  Beauty,  developed  by  the 
human  figure,  and  especially  the  head  and  face,  frequent  reference  will  be  made  hereafter  5 and 
unless  proper  care  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  study  as  well  as  practice  of  these  examples,  the 
learner  will  find  his  progress  continually  impeded  for  want  of  that  elementary  strength  and  progres- 
sive knowledge  necessary  to  secure  success  in  more  advanced  studies.  The  straight  lines,  given  to 
assist  in  drawing  the  outlines,  may  be  drawn  with  a lead  pencil  (43),  which,  after  the  outline  is 
secured  by  the  pen,  may  be  erased  with  Indian  rubber.  Again,  let  it  be  impressed  upon  the 
pupil,  that  the  sooner  he  learns  to  do  without  these  straight  lines,  drawn  on  the  paper,  the  better, 
but  their  application  and  use  should  never  be  overlooked  or  forgotten. 


T HE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


41 


12 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


55.  To  enter  into  the  minute  detail  of  the  proportions  of  the  head  and  features,  according  to  the 
most  received  standards,  would  be  of  little  benefit  to  the  student  until  he  is  farther  advanced.  A 
few  leading  principles  will  be  sufficient  for  his  present  purposes.  Nature,  although  confined  by 
no  mathematical  precision,  and  producing  the  infinite  variety  of  countenance,  character,  and 
expression,  by  enlarging  and  diminishing  as  well  as  varying  the  form  of  the  features,  has  supplied, 
in  her  most  perfect  productions,  a standard  of  proportion  useful  to  the  draughtsman,  not  only  as 
assisting  in  the  delineation  of  correct  and  beautiful  forms,  but  also  in  such  as  are  exceptions.  A 
standard  of  form  once  impressed  on  the  mind,  we  soon  learn  to  measure  all  deviations  by  it,  as  we 
learn  to  measure  the  variations  of  curved  or  eccentric  by  straight  lines  (20,  21).  Thus  may  the 
eye  be  educated  not  only  to  fix  upon  the  most  prominent  and  characteristic  peculiarities  of  a head, 
at  once,  but  the  impression  will  be  so  vividly  preserved  upon  the  memory  that  it  may  be  recalled 
and  delineated  at  any  moment,  with  a degree  of  facility  as  surprising  to  the  uninitiated  as 
serviceable  to  the  possessor.  Nor  is  this  principle  of  design  alone  applicable  to  drawing  the  head. 
It  extends,  as  a general  and  practical  method,  to  the  delineation  and  preservation  in  the  memory  of  all 
other  objects,  besides  assisting  in  the  cultivation  of  taste  and  that  keen  perception  of  the  beautiful, 
which  not  only  open  to  the  follower  and  lover  of  art  such  inexhaustible  resources  of  enjoyment, 
but  have  a purifying  influence  in  the  direction  of  his  efforts  to  high  and  noble  purposes.  As  we 
measure  the  degree  of  deformity  by  beauty,  so  a high  standard  of  beauty  has  been  attained  by 
avoiding  deformity.  Thus  the  great  artists  of  antiquity  produced  those  exquisite  and  beautiful 
forms  which  perhaps  were  never  found  combined  in  any  one  living  individual,  and  yet  these  forms 
were  ideal  only  in  their  combination.  Without  the  closest  study  and  the  keenest  perception  of  the 
beautiful  in  nature,  only  to  be  acquired  by  that  study,  they  never  could  have  been  produced. 

56.  To  draw  the  head  in  PROFILE,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  fix  upon  some  certain 
point  or  line  to  begin  with,  and  one  is  most  admirably  provided  by  nature,  of  unerring  certainty. 

On  looking  at  a head  in  an  easy,  erect  position,  the  lower  points  of 
the  nose  and  ear  will  be  found  to  be  on  a level.  A line  connecting 
these  points,  therefore,  gives  a basis  which  must  necessarily  maintain 
its  relations  to  all  the  parts  and  proportions  of  the  head,  above  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  ear  and  nose.  No  matter  what  may  be  the 
position  of  the  head,  they  must  move  with  and  accord  with  that  line  — 
the  lower  jaw  alone  possessing  the  power  of  independent  motion  and 
consequently  affecting  that  portion  of  the  face  below  it.  Draw  a line 
at  right  angles  to  this,  and  on  it  mark  the  length  of  the  nose, 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


43 


which  is  generally  about  one  fourth  the  whole  height  of  the  head,  and  you  have  a standard  or 
scale  by  which  not  only  the  proportions  of  the  head  may  be  ascertained,  but  those  of  the  whole 
figure.  The  head  is  considered  as  containing  in  height  four  measures  of  the  nose  — and,  that 
greater  accuracy  may  be  obtained,  the  nose  is  subdivided  into  twelve  Parts,  usually  called 
Minutes.  These  minutes  are  seldom  attended  to  in  the  delineation  of  nature,  but  are  found 
serviceable  in  minute  study  of  the  antique  statues,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown.  The  received 
scale  of  measurement,  therefore,  for  the  figure  stands  thus  — Twelve  Minutes  make  one  Part  (or 
nose) — Four  Parts  one  Head  — etc.  However  these  proportions  may  be  found  to  vary  in  nature, 
some  standard  by  which  we  may  be  enabled  to  define  the  degree  of  such  variations  has  been 
found  of  much  practical  utility. 

57.  The  oval  has  been  often  recommended  as  the  best 
given  form  upon  which  to  delineate  the  head,  and  when  seen 
in  a full,  front  view  (64),  it  will  be  found  to  serve  most 
admirably,  but  in  the  profile  it  is  in  a measure  of  little  value. 
The  pupil  should  early  train  his  eye  to  the  observation  of  the 
general  forms  of  objects,  and  the  sooner  he  begins  the  better. 
When  that  general  form  assimilates  to  a well-known  and 
recognised  shape,  as  for  instance,  the  circle,  the  oval,  the 
square,  or  the  triangle,  it  is  well  enough  to  make  use  of  them, 
but  it  will  be  seen  at  once  by  the  above  outline,  how  little 
the  oval  can  assist  in  drawing  the  profile.  It  limits  nothing, 
defines  nothing.  It  gives  no  fixed  point  or  proportion,  nor  does  it  present  the  slightest 
general  idea  of  the  head.  Equally  inefficient  is  the  application  of  the  equilateral  triangle  and  the 
square ; and  after  all,  if  the  learner  can  not  be  taught  to  do  without  such  mechanical  aid  in 
drawing,  even  in  his  early  attempts,  he  will  never  attain  proficiency  in  the  art.  They  are  necessary 
more  as  correctives,  as  the  means  by  which  he  may,  with  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment,  supply 
the  want  of  a teacher,  to  tell  him  when  he  is  doing  wrong,  and  direct  him  in  correcting  his 
mistakes,  maturing  his  judgment  gradually  for  higher  efforts,  and  clearing  from  his  way  all 
mystery  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  in  design.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  various 
methods  and  principles  that  have  been  long  inculcated,  in  many  cases  by  high  authority,  should  be 
disregarded  5 they  may  be  all  good  and  serviceable  to  a certain  extent,  but  they  often  tend  to  confuse 
rather  than  assist  the  learner  in  his  first  efforts.  He  becomes  alarmed  at  the  difficulties  in  which 
he  is  involved,  finds  the  pursuit  one  of  toil  rather  than  pleasure,  and  gives  it  up  in  despair. 


44 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


58.  With  the  line  designating  the  position  of  the  ear  and  nostril,  a general  outline  of  the 
head  and  the  general  proportions  marked  out,  but  little  more  remains  than  to  express  by  well- 
defined  and  decided  touches  the  characteristic  features  and  more  minute  details. 


59.  It  would  seem  in  place  and  proper  before  proceeding  farther,  to  enter  into  an  explanation 
of  the  anatomical  formation  of  the  head,  especially  of  the  bones,  and  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  proceed  far  in  the  delineation  of  the  human  figure,  without  reverting  to  the  wonderful 
machinery  that  gives  it  life  and  action.  But,  it  is  not  well,  at  this  stage  of  the  pupil’s  progress,  to 
enter  upon  a study  that  he  will  pursue  with  more  earnestness  and  greater  profit  hereafter,  when  he 
has  advanced  far  enough  to  be  more  sensible  of  its  absolute  necessity.  He  has  now  to  learn,  not 
only  the  rudimental  principles  of  design,  but  to  acquire  a facility  in  the  use  of  the  pen  or  pencil 
that  can  only  be  obtained  by  practice,  and  an  increased  and  increasing  love  for  the  art,  which  will 
bear  him  onward  successfully,  and  sustain  him  through  any  difficulty  that  he  may  encounter. 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


15 


60.  Many  have  been  deterred  from  learning  to  draw,  by  the  formidable  array  of  studies  that  have 
been  unnecessarily  placed  before  them,  which  should  never  be  in  advance,  but  always,  as  far  as 
possible,  progressive  with  a certain  degree  of  capacity  both  of  eye  and  hand.  The  judgment 
and  power  of  execution  being  thus  matured  together,  their  growth  is  healthful  and  gives  certain 
assurance  of  success.  Let  the  pupil,  therefore,  try  his  hand  in  drawing  the  above  profiles  or  any 
others  more  suited  to  his  taste,  to  which  he  may  have  access.  Let  him  practically  apply  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down,  and  if  he  does  not  succeed  in  producing  a fair  copy,  he  may  rely  upon  it  he  has 
gone  too  fast,  and  before  proceeding  farther  should  retrace  the  ground  he  has  passed  over.  A 
more  finished  example  in  drawing  the  profile,  and  on  a larger  scale,  may  be  now  attempted. 


40 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


61.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  a drawing,  incorrect  in  outline  and  the  just  proportions  of  the  parts, 
can  never  be  said  to  be  finished,  however  great  the  labor  bestowed  upon  the  elaboration  of  its  details. 
Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  that  these  important  points  are  well  determined  first : and  thus 
much  lost  time  and  many  disappointments  will  be  avoided.  First  obtain  a general  idea  of  the  object 
which  you  desire  to  draw.  Then  arrange  its  proportions  into  an  harmonious  outline  — Study  it 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


47 


well  5 — see  that  all  the  prevailing  lines 
correspond  to  the  form,  character, 
and  action  of  the  original.  That  done, 
you  have  a sure  groundwork  upon 
which  you  may  proceed  with  safety, 
and  all  the  labor  bestowed  upon  it  af- 
terward will  be  to  the  purpose.  This 
principle  will  be  found  of  general 
application  in  design,  from  the  mi- 
nutest object  to  the  most  extensive 
composition  5 and  yet  we  must  pos- 
sess knowledge  of  the  details  to  form 
just  ideas  of  the  whole.  You  can 
not  begin  by  drawing  a foot  and 
erect  on  it  a perfect  figure,  although 
without  the  capacity  to  draw  and 
finish  that  foot,  you  can  not  form  a 
just  idea  of  its  true  position  and 
relation  to  the  whole  figure.  First 
make  yourself  proficient  in  details 
and  particulars  — then  learn  to  con- 
nect these  particulars  into  an  har- 
monious whole,  to  understand  the 
power  and  propriety  of  their  com- 
binations, and  you  are  prepared  to 
generalize,  and  to  descend  from  gen- 
erals to  particulars,  in  the  execution 
of  your  drawings,  pictures,  models, 
or  designs. 


62.  In  drawing  the  outline  of  the  second  profile,  it  should  be  remembered,  that  the  parts  of 
the  face  covered  by  the  beard,  should  be  slightly  indicated  or  at  least  defined,  or  you  can  never 
with  accuracy  express  those  that  do  appear  and  preserve  all  the  proportions,  action,  and  harmony 
of  the  parts.  The  importance  of  the  application  of  this  method  will  be  more  forcibly  shown 
hereafter.  In  this  instance  it  may  seem  of  trivial  importance  — but  still  it  is  of  importance  and 


48 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


should  not  escape  the  observation  and  attention  of  the  learner.  He  should  look  not  only  to  the 
appearance  of  objects,  but  also  to  their  actual  form.  It  is  thus,  and  thus  only,  that  he  will  acquire 
the  eye  and  hand  of  a master  in  the  art,  and  avoid  that  feebleness  and  indecision  which  mark  the 
touch  of  the  uneducated;  who  may  labor  and  elaborate  as  they  will,  yet  never  reach  the  truth  and 
expression  that  seem  but  the  momentary,  spontaneous,  impulse  of  a masters’  hand.  This  should 
be  the  high  aim  of  the  follower  of  art,  and  should  he  grow  weary  over  the  means  required  in  its 
attainment,  let  him  be  encouraged  to  persevere,  in  the  certainty  of  success  that  awaits  his 
exertions.  Above  all  things,  let  him  not  attempt  too  much  until  he  acquires  strength.  His  steps 
should  be  slow  and  sure.  The  desire  of  advancement  is  wholesome  in  art,  as  in  all  other  pursuits 
and  studies,  but  should  be  restrained  within  proper  limits.  Let  it  be  cherished  and  kept  alive  as 
an  incentive  to  that  preparation  requisite  for  high  achievements.  Success  in  humble  efforts  gives 
strength  for  higher,  while  continued  failures  tend  to  break  down  and  crush  the  spirit. 

63.  It  may  be  found  more  difficult  for  a beginner  to  draw  in  large  than  small,  yet,  if  the  limits 
of  this  work  would  allow,  all  the  examples  given  would  be  better  if  they  were  of  the  full  size  of 
nature.  The  profiles  which  have  just  been  presented  to  the  pupil,  demand  the  exertion  of  his 
utmost  capacity,  and  they  should  be  drawn,  not  only  as  they  are,  but  also  reversed,  which  is 
recommended  as  the  proper  course  of  practice  with  all  the  examples  that  have  been,  or  may  be 
given  hereafter. 


T HE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


49 


64.  However  inappropriate  the  oval  may  be  in  drawing  a 
profile,  its  application  to  a full  or  front  view  will  appear  by  a 
moment’s  observation.  It  strikes  at  once  the  prevailing  or  general 
outbne,  whether  it  be  that  of  a youthful  or  aged  individual.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  regular  and  mathematical  ellipse, 
generally  called  an  oval,  is  not  here  meant,  but  the  true  oval  or 
egg-like  form  — one  familiar  to  all,  and  easily  remembered.  The 
same  governing  lines  and  general  proportions,  that  are  applicable  to 
the  profile,  apply  also  to  the  full  or  front  view  of  the  head  and  face ; 
and  according  to  the  degree  of  diversion  of  the  lines  and  propor- 
tions in  the  original  from  these,  can  we  determine  their  true  posi- 
tion and  delineate  them.  It  is  easy  to  decide,  in  assuming  the 
form  of  an  egg  to  represent  the  general  outline  of  the  head,  whether  that  form  be  more  or  less 
obtuse  or  elongated,  according  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  original  we  desire  to  represent,  as  well  as 
the  proportions  occupied  by  the  individual  features  5 and  the  degree  of  variation  once  decided  with 
regard  to  the  original  object,  the  pupil  has  gone  over  the  instructions  already  given  to  very  little 
profit,  if  he  can  not  express  them  in  his  drawing  with  readiness. 


65.  The  moment  the  head  is  thrown  backward  or  forward,  and  the  lower  extremity  of  the  nose  is 
thereby  thrown  above  or  below  the  lower  extremities  of  the  ears,  the  base  or  governing  line,  drawn 


50 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING 


through  these  points  ceases,  necessarily,  to  be  a straight  line,  and  according  to  the  degree  of 
elevation  or  depression  of  the  head,  is  its  degree  of  variation  and  curvature.  It  is  still,  however,  the 
governing  line  for  the  true  position  of  the  features,  which  must  harmonize  and  agree  with  it  upon 
the  principles  already  inculcated  with  reference  to  drawing  the  profile. 

66.  Until  the  pupil  has  acquired  some  knowledge  of  perspective,  he  can  not  be  made 
thoroughly  to  comprehend  the  delicate  variations  of  these  lines  in  their  relation  to  one  another, 
and  although  it  more  properly  belongs  to  that  study,  a simple  principle  may  be  here  introduced 
to  his  notice.  Take  an  ordinary  glass  or  tumbler,  half  full  of  water  ; hold  it  up  before  you, 
until  the  line  of  the  water  is  on  a level  with  the 
eye — it  presents  then  a straight  line.  Observe  the 
lines  of  the  brim  and  bottom  of  the  tumbler  — they  are 
both  curved.  Then  bring  the  brim  on  a level  with  the 
eye  — it  is  a straight  line — while  that  of  the  water 
presents  a curve  and  that  of  the  bottom  a still  greater. 

The  farther  the  glass  is  removed  from  the  eye,  the 
more  these  curves  diminish  or  approach  straight  lines — 
until  at  the  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet,  their  curvature 
is  scarcely  perceptible  — Still  the  actual  lines  of  the  brim,  the  water,  and  the  base,  are  in  fact  par- 
allel to  each  other,  although  the  tumbler  can  be  placed  at  no  distance  or  in  no  possible  position  in 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


5i 


which  they  will  so  appear  to  the  eye,  or  in  which  it  would  be  allowable  so  to  represent  them.  All 
this  does  not  affect  the  principles  which  it  is  now  the  object  to  inculcate.  Hereafter  these  nice 
distinctions  will  be  better  understood  by  the  pupil,  as  he  will  soon,  if  he  does  not  already,  feel  the 
impossibility  of  advancing  far  in  the  study  of  Design  without  a knowledge  of  perspective,  which 
must  shortly  occupy  his  attention. 


67.  In  a three-quarters  view  of  the  face  and  head,  the  oval  is  often  made  use  of,  but  with  much 
less  advantage  than  in  a full,  front  view  A desire  to  fix  upon  some  one  form  by  which  the 
outline  of  the  head  may  be  generalized,  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  oval,  and  if  it  were 
absolutely  necessary  that  one  arbitrary  form  alone  should  be  used,  a better  could  not  be  devised. 


t>2 


It  UDIMENTS  OF  DRAWIN  O 


It  should  be  applied,  however,  with 
judgment,  or  it  may  lead  to  error  and 
prove  a deceitful  guide.  When  drawn 
on  a flat  surface,  the  moment  the  view 
of  the  head  inclines  to  the  right  or  left, 
the  centre  or  perpendicular  ceases  to 
be  a straight  line,  and  increasing  in 
curvature,  loses  its  true  position  as  a 
middle  or  central  line  for  the  features, 
while  the  oval  itself  is  gradually  lost 
in  regard  to  the  true  outline  of  the 
head,  until  the  movement  reaches  a pro- 
file, and  it  becomes  in  a measure  useless. 

Were  we  to  follow  this  central  line  in 
its  movement,  under  such  circumstances, 
and  assume  it  as  indicating  the  middle 
point  of  the  features,  distortion  would 
inevitably  be  the  result.  The  draughts- 
man should  look  to  something  more  accurate  and  unerring.  Even  in  the  next  outline,  although 
the  head  is,  as  it  were,  forced  into  the  oval,  and  the  curve  indicating  the  middle  point  of  the 
forehead  and  mouth  adapted  to  it,  the  whole  seems  rather  an  affectation  of  method  than  a prac- 
tical application. 


68.  The  imaginary  central  line  of  the  face  and  head,  is  of 
as  much  importance  as  any  real  fine  presented  to  the  eye,  and 
should  be  as  carefully  studied  and  defined.  It  will  be  found 
not  only  serviceable  in  assisting  to  determine  the  proper  posi- 
tion and  balance  of  the  features,  when  drawing  from  a pic- 
ture, print,  cast,  or  other  still  representation  of  the  living  head, 
but  highly  important  in  drawing  from  nature,  especially  when 
we  have  children  or  restless  subjects  for  models.  The  great 
difficulty  and  annoyance,  so  often  experienced  by  artists  in 
this  respect,  might  be  avoided,  in  a great  degree,  if  this  cen- 
tral line  were  more  carefully  studied.  It  directs  at  once  to 
the  general  character  of  the  head,  without  which  no  perfec- 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


53 


tion  of  individual  parts  will  ever  produce  resemblance.  It  is  by  a general  impression  that  we 
know  and  recognise  acquaintances,  and  see  resemblances  even  at  a distance.  This, — not  the  ab- 
stracted detail  of  parts,  the  precise  line  of  a lip,  or  the  tint  of  an  eye, — is  fixed  upon  the  mind  and 
governs  its  conclusions.  It  must  not  be  understood  that  these  peculiarities  should  be  neglected,  but 
that  they  should  not  be  suffered  to  engross  the  attention  of  the  draughtsman,  to  the  neglect  of 
more  important  principles  — more  important,  because  without  proper  attention  to  them,  the  labor 
bestowed  upon  detail  will  be  to  little  profit.  As  evidence  how  much  more  strongly  general 
impressions  of  form  are  retained  upon  the  memory  than  minute  peculiarities,  how  often  do  we 
hear  disagreement  between  persons  as  to  certain  peculiarities  in  those  with  whom  they  are  in  the 
habit  of  daily  intercourse.  One  will  contend,  that  an  absent  friend’s  eye  is  black,  another  will  insist 
that  it  is  hazel,  a third  that  it  is  blue,  and  when  the  matter  is  settled  by  the  presence  of  the 
individual,  it  is  found  they  were  all  wrong,  and  yet  neither  party  would  fail  to  recognise  their  friend 
as  far  as  they  could  see  him. 


69.  As  a profitable  exercise  for  the  study  and 
understanding  of  this  principle  of  design,  as  well  as 
of  all  those  urged  upon  the  attention  of  the  pupil  in 
this  chapter,  let  him  take  a good  plaster  cast  of  a 
head,  and  on  it  draw  a central  line,  from  the  parting 
of  the  hair  to  the  extremity  of  the  chin;  let  him  also 
draw  a fine  touching  the  lower  extremities  of  the 
ears  and  nose,  others  parallel  to  it  passing  through 
the  eyelids,  eyebrows,  and  mouth,  and  lines  from 
the  inner  corners  of  the  eyes  to  the  mouth,  parallel 
with  the  central  line.  These  governing  fines  defi- 
ning the  positions  and  proportions  of  the  features  will 
then  appear,  in  a three-quarters  view,  similar  to 
those  indicated  in  the  annexed  outline,  and  there  is 
no  better  practice  for  a beginner  than  to  draw  from 
a plaster  cast  thus  marked.  He  should  place  it  in  every  possible  position,  and  draw  it  carefully  ; 
making  use  of  these  fines  as  guides  by  which  to  define  not  only  the  true  position  and  form  of  the 
features,  but  to  accustom  his  eye  to  the  close  observation  and  understanding  of  the  principles 
that  must  govern  him  in  the  delineation  of  the  head.  After  some  practice  in  drawing  and  famil- 
iarity with  a cast,  thus  marked,  he  may  make  a trial  on  one  without  the  lines.  Drawing  from 
casts  is  an  important  exercise,  as  casts  afford  greater  facility  for  careful  study  and  observation  than 


54 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


living  models,  who  are  constantly  changing  their  positions,  and  thus  embarrassing  the  unpractised 
draughtsman.  In  schools  and  classes,  it  is  recommended  that  a small  collection  of  good 
specimens,  not  only  of  heads,  but  of  hands,  feet,  limbs,  etc.,  should  be  made,  for  the  use  of  pupils. 
Those  who  pursue  the  art  by  themselves,  should  at  least  have  one  or  more  good  copies  from  the 
antique,  which  can  be  readily  procured,  and  at  a very  cheap  rate,  in  any  of  our  cities.  In 
drawing  from  them,  they  should  always  be  placed  or  remain  in  the  same  light  during  the  progress 
of  a drawing.  Whether  the  subject  of  imitation  be  a cast  or  living  head,  the  same  principles  and 
method  will  be  found  applicable ; as  the  former  presents  less  difficulty,  it  is  the  better  to  begin  with. 
Before  a touch  or  line  is  made,  you  should  study  well  the  original  before  you,  and  define  its 
position  and  movement  $ make  yourself  familiar  with  its  character  and  peculiarities,  balance  all  its 
proportions,  and  carefully  adjust  the  relation  of  the  parts  to  one  another } and,  as  all  important  with 
the  rest,  do  not  lose  sight  of  the  value  of  a correct  central  point  for  the  features,  for  it  is  your 
surest  reliance.  Once  obtained,  it  affords  a key  to  the  truthful  delineation  of  the  head  and 
features,  and  with  proper  care  and  attention  secures  the  utmost  certainty  in  preserving  the 

harmonious  agreement  of  the  parts. 


Many  sketches  and  drawings,  by  those 
who  have  been  most  distinguished  as 
masters  in  the  art,  might  be  referred  to, 
to  show  their  familiar  use  and  appli- 
cation of  this  method,  which  with  a 
little  practice  and  observation,  will  be 
soon  understood  and  appreciated  by  the 
pupil. 


THE  HUMAN  HEAD. 


56  RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAW  IN  G 

70.  It  should  be  understood  that  the  study  and  practice  of  pupils  should  not  be  confined  to 
the  examples  given  in  this  work.  There  are  many  admirable  specimens  well  worthy  of  their  study 
and  imitation,  which  may  be  readily  obtained,  and  all  that  has  been  thus  far  said,  has  been  to  little 
purpose,  if  they  are  not  already  capable  of  exercising  proper  judgment  in  selection.  One  thing  can 
not  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  them  : It  is  more-  important  to  acquire  a knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  art,  than  a mere  facility  in  the  imitation  of  the  manner  of  another.  Many  falsely 
imagine  when  they  can  “ make  a drawing  to  look  like  an  engraving”  to  the  uneducated  eye  of 
partial  friends,  they  are  doing  great  things  in  the  way  of  art,  but  it  is  a sad  mistake.  Let  them 
learn  the  first,  great  principles  of  design,  and  then  that  best  of  all  Drawing-Books,  the  Book  of 
Nature , is  open  and  intelligible  to  them,  its  pages  teeming  with  interest  and  delight  as  well 
as  beauty,  and  exhaustless  as  the  resources  of  enjoyment  and  profit  they  afford. 


8 


CHAPTER  III. 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING.— THE  HUMAN  FIGURE. 


"Practice,  though  essential  to  perfection,  can  never  attain  that  to  which  it  aims,  unless 
it  works  under  the  direction  of  principle." — Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

ITH  some  the  method  of  learning  to  draw,  thus  far  developed,  may 
have  proved  long  and  even  tedious  5 while  to  others  it  may  have 
been  too  rapid,  and  their  advancement,  in  its  practical  application, 
may  not  have  equalled  their  expectations  or  wishes.  The  former 
should  not  be  disheartened  because  their  hand  and  conception  have 
not  kept  pace  with  their  teaching,  nor  the  latter  deceive  themselves  by 
hurrying  forward  too  rapidly,  — or  fail  to  understand,  thoroughly,  and 
to  apply  practically,  every  principle  laid  down.  The  purpose  of  the  American  Drawing-Book 
is  not  to  teach  the  methods  of  drawing  trees,  houses,  faces,  figures,  or  flowers,  by  separate 
recipe,  nor  to  direct  the  learner  by  short-cuts  to  the  attainment  of  proficiency  in  any  one 
branch  singly  5 but,  to  place  before  him  the  broad  principles  of  Design,  a knowledge  of  which, 
with  the  power  of  its  practical  application,  will  qualify  for  the  exercise  of  all,  or  any  one  branch, 
that  the  taste  or  inclination  of  the  possessor  may  lead  him  to  pursue  5 and  the  course  of  study 


GO 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


advised  is  sincerely  believed  to  be  the  surest  and  most  direct  to  the  attainment  of  that  object. 
It  is  no  experiment,  but  one  that  has  been  well  tested  and  proved,  claiming  no  novelty,  beyond 
its  adaptation  to  the  wants  and  purposes  of  our  time  and  country,  divesting  the  art  of  all 
mystery,  and  placing  it  within  the  reach  and  comprehension  of  every  one. 

72.  Some  who  have,  perhaps,  filled  their  minds  with  high  aspirations,  may  look  with  disdain 
upon  the  simple  beginning  placed  before  them,  “ as  matters  for  children,”  and  turn  over  leaf  by 
leaf  in  search  of  something  to  strike  their  fancy,  and  yet,  they  may  not  be  able  to  draw  two  straight 
lines,  nor  two  crooked  ones  either,  to  a given  purpose,  with  the  accuracy  of  many  an  urchin  on 
the  school-bench,  who  has  only  started  when  they  considered  themselves  already  far  on  the  way. 
Let  such  reflect  seriously  upon  this  self-deception,  and  let  them  be  assured,  that  the  higher 
their  aspirations,  the  more  they  will  require  the  aid  of  such  elementary  knowledge  to  realize 
them.  It  is  a short  task,  that  will  well  repay  the  labor  bestowed,  even  to  those  most  richly 
endowed  with  the  gift  of  genius  5 for  by  such  aid  will  they  most  surely  develop  that  genius,  and 
reach  the  goal  of  their  highest  ambition. 

73.  Before  entering  upon  the  study  of  the  whole  figure,  some  degree  of  attention  should  be 
bestowed  upon  the  delineation  of  the  hand  and  foot  5 both  of  which  present  difficulties  to  the 
beginner,  and  from  these  very  difficulties,  are  well  calculated  to  strengthen  that  general  capacity 
which  should  be  his  aim,  and  which  is  an  essential  qualification  in  a draughtsman  ; more 
irregular  and  less  balanced  in  their  parts  and  proportions  than  the  head,  the  pupil  is  compelled 
to  rely  more  upon  his  eye  and  judgment  in  ascertaining  the  modulations  of  their  form  and 
outline,  the  proportions  of  the  parts,  and  their  relation  to  one  another.  But,  if  he  has  carefully 
studied  and  practised  one  of  the  first  and  most  simple  examples  placed  before  him  (32),  he  pos- 
sesses the  understanding  of  a principle  from  which  he  will  derive  much  assistance.  If  he  has  not 
hurried  forward  too  rapidly,  and  has  bestowed  proper  attention  upon  what  has  been  already  urged, 
in  reference  to  the  delineation  of  the  individual  features  of  the  head,  he  will  soon  find  the  diffi- 
culties encountered,  in  his  first  attempts  in  drawing  the  hand  or  foot,  gradually  lessened,  as  he 
becomes  familiar  with  the  application  to  them,  as  to  every  other  object,  of  one  of  the  first  and 
leading  principles  of  design  (21).  If  he  is  not  already,  he  will  soon  be  convinced  that  the  time 
and  study  this  knowledge  has  cost  him  have  been  well  bestowed,  and  that  he  has  done  better,  and 
advanced  more  surely,  than  if  he  had  filled  his  port-folio  with  what  might  seem  higher  attempts ; 
but,  from  which  he  would  have  derived  but  little  permanent  advantage. 


T HE  HUMAN  F O O T . 


61 


74.  The  ambition  to  have  “ something  to  show”  is  apt  to  mislead  from  a proper  and  systematic 
course.  Much  of  this  evil  may  be  attributed  to  the  misguided  anxiety  of  parents  and  friends,  as 
well  as  teachers,  who  often  allow  their  judgment  to  be  overcome,  either  to  indulge  the  whim 
of  a parent  or  pupil,  or  to  gain  a reputation  as  rapid  instructors.  They  even  here  deceive 
themselves  by  taking  the  very  longest  course  they  could  adopt.  Such  teachers  do  far  more  to 
impede  than  forward  the  cause  of  education  in  design.  Even  if  rapid  advancement  be  the 
object,  a few  hours  devoted  to  the  elucidation,  to  the  understanding  of  the  pupil,  of  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  drawing,  will  advance  him  more  certainly,  and  rapidly,  than  weeks  and  months  wasted 
in  groping  a devious  way  through  ill-drawn  fancy  castles,  distorted  heads  and  figures,  trees  and 
bridges,  and  the  endless  variety  of  “ easy  lessons”  which  are  too  often  placed  before  him  — the 
great  secret  of  their  being  “ easy  to  do”  often  consisting  in  their  being  so  decidedly  bad  that  he 
can  hardly  make  anything  worse. 

75.  It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  pupil,  during  the  prosecution  of  the  study  of  Draw- 
ing, should  be  excluded  from  the  privilege  of  attempting  to  draw  anything  that  strikes  his  fancy 
or  excites  his  admiration,  more  than  we  would  deny  the  privilege  of  speech  to  a child  while  he 
is  learning  his  grammar.  Let  him  try  the  road-side  cottage,  the  rustic  bridge,  the  house-dog, 
or  any  other  object  with  which  he  is  familiar,  either  in  nature,  drawings,  or  prints,  and  always 
let  him  do  the  best  he  can.  The  very  difficulties  he  will  encounter,  the  wants  he  will  be  made 
to  feel,  will  have  a strong  and  happy  tendency  to  give  additional  impulse  to  his  studies,  besides 
the  cultivation  and  development  of  that  love  for  art  which  might  otherwise  be  blighted  by  too 
rigid  application  to  its  study.  It  is  in  this  study  that  his  efforts  should  be  prescribed  to  a 
systematic  course  of  education,  that  will  ultimately  lead  to  the  possession  of  that  happy  faculty 
which  will  overcome  all  difficulties,  and  enable  him  to  draw,  with  equal  ease  and  facility,  any 
object  in  nature,  or  of  the  mind’s  creation. 

76.  The  Foot  is  by  no  means  so  facile  in  its  movements  as  the  hand,  nor  capable  of  such 
great  variety  of  attitude  and  action  5 hence  it  is  easier  to  draw,  and,  therefore,  more  properly, 
should  be  placed  first  before  the  pupil.  He  will  now  have  occasion  for  the  exercise  and  prac- 
tical application  of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  primary  instructions  he  has  received  5 and 
should  he  find  the  difficulties  he  encounters  try  him  beyond  his  strength,  he  can  not  do  better, 
before  he  proceeds  farther,  than  to  make  a careful  revision  of  the  ground  he  may  have  passed 
over  too  hurriedly,  or  without  bestowing  sufficient  study  and  practice  upon  these  primary  ex- 


ercises. 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING.. 


77.  However  admirable  and  perfect  may  be  the  antique  statues  in  their  proportions  and  details, 
and  however  desirable  it  may  be  to  place  before  the  pupil  the  choicest  models  for  the  exercise 
of  his  skill,  it  is  enough  for  his  present  purposes  to  look  to  the  familiar  objects  which  are  within 
his  reach.  A boy’s  foot  can  be  found  without  seeking  it  in  an  academy  5 and,  if  it  has  not  been 
already  distorted  by  the  shoemaker,  affords  a model  well  worth  his  study  and  best  effort.  First, 
let  him  try  the  example  here  placed  before  him,  and  then,  doubtless,  he  may  find  a young 
friend  not  unwilling  to  submit  to  serve  as  his  model ; and,  if  he  has  done  all  that  has  been 

required  of  him,  and  carefully  exercises  himself  in  these  few  examples,  he  will  possess  the 

capacity  of  drawing  a foot,  and  presently  a hand,  from  nature,  with  ease  and  accuracy ; — and 

more:  if  he  can  draw  a Head,  a Hand,  and  a Foot,  he  can  draw  the  Figure,  or  any  other 


j 


THE  HUMAN  FOOT. 


G3 


familiar  object  5 not,  perhaps,  with  the  precision  and  touch  of  a master,  but  he  can  achieve 
enough  to  insure  the  possession  of  a safe  and  certain  groundwork  of  useful  practical  knowledge 
and  facility  of  Design. 

78.  The  first  thing  to  be  done,  in  drawing  the  above  example,  is  carefully  to  examine  and 
study  the  original,  and  to  ascertain  its  proportions,  as  nearly  as  you  can,  without  measuring. 
Then  cautiously  set  about  its  outline,  which  should  be  accurately,  but  delicately  defined,  before 
any  attempt  is  made  to  express  the  shadows  or  tints,  which  are  in  comparison  with  it  of  sec- 
ondary importance,  especially  at  this  stage  of  your  progress.  Be  not  in  a hurry  to  make  pic- 
tures ; learn  to  draw  correctly,  and  the  pictures  you  make,  by-and-by,  will  be  all  the  better  for  it. 


r,4 


R (I  D I M E N T S OF  D 11  A VV  I N G . 


79.  O)  Lest  the  principles,  upon  which  the  out- 
line on  the  last  page  is  produced,  should  not  be 
sufficiently  understood  by  the  pupil,  let  us  enter  into 
a more  concise  explanation  $ and,  for  the  sake  of 
economizing  space,  by  a reduction  of  it,  which  will 
answer  all  purposes.  As  he  reads,  he  can  refer  to 
the  larger  outline.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that 
all  the  examples,  and,  indeed,  everything  else  the 
learner  attempts  to  draw,  should  be,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  the  size  of  the  original ; thereby  avoiding 
that  confusion  of  lines,  and  indecision,  almost  inseparable  from  diminished  drawings,  and  which, 
in  spite  of  every  precaution,  are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  the  efforts  of  all  beginners.  Self- 
deception,  which  is  apt  to  result  from  the  practice  of  drawing  in  small,  should  be  carefully  guarded 
against.  The  quality  of  prettiness,  which,  often,  is  no  more  than  littleness  in  art,  may  disguise 
errors,  which  drawing  in  large  develops  5 but  it  performs  a faithless  service  — one  highly  preju- 
dicial to  the  advancement  of  the  student,  and  calculated  to  mislead : for  the  evidence  of  his  errors 
is  the  safest  guard  against  their  recurrence. 

(n)  The  first  requisite  is  to  secure  well-defined 
starting-points,  and  also  a scale  of  proportions 
for  the  parts.  Having  decided  on  the  length,  from 
the  heel  to  the  end  of  the  great  toe,  next  ascer- 
tain the  direction  of  the  outline  defining  the  sole 
of  the  foot.  Remark  (or  mark,  in  your  first  trials) 
the  points  of  the  principal  indentations,  or  features ; 
and,  surely,  if  you  can  draw  the  profile  of  a face 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  but  little  difficulty 
will  be  encountered  in  drawing  the  simple  curved 
line  before  you.  But  simple  and  easy  as  it  may  be, 
it  must  be  done  with  precision.  Observe  that  the  outline  above  the  heel  disappears  at  a point 
immediately  perpendicular  to  the  extremity  of  the  heel  — remark  the  peculiarity  of  the  curve  of 
that  portion  of  the  outline  — connect  it  with  that  of  the  sole  of  the  foot — do  it  cautiously  and 
carefully,  and,  if  correctly,  you  have  not  only  certain  starting  points,  but  one  half  of  your  outline 
already  done.  Do  not  suffer  yourself  to  be  deceived,  when  you  have  only  produced  an  outline  to 
look  something  like  the  original  $ that  is  not  enough : it  should  correspond  to  it  exactly. 


THE 


65 


HUMAN  FOOT. 

(in)  You  will  observe  that  the  point  where  the 
instep  unites  with  the  leg  is  directly  perpendicular 
to  the  termination  of  the  outline  of  the  heel,  where 
it  unites  with  that  of  the  hollow  of  the  foot.  The 
direction  of  the  outward  line  of  the  leg  would,  if 
continued,  strike  a point  about  the  middle  of  that 
of  the  hollow  of  the  foot.  The  intersection  of  these 
imaginary  lines  gives  you  this  important  point,  which 
you  can  further  verify,  by  extending  the  curve  of 
the  heel,  upward,  to  their  intersection.  Assure 
yourself,  by  close  observation,  how  far  the  lines  in  the  original  correspond  with  those  before 
you  ; and  then  proceed  with  the  completion  of  your  outline,  observing,  throughout,  the  utmost 
caution,  and  endeavor  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  correction,  by  avoiding  the  occurrence  of 
error. 

(iv.)  Ascertain  the  direction  of  the  line  of  the 
instep  by  a straight  line,  as  indicated,  and  then  ver- 
ify its  sweep  by  a continuation  of  it  at  one  or  both 
extremities.  This  method  of  the  imaginary  exten- 
sion of  lines,  when  once  made  familiar,  will  be 
found  of  great  assistance  to  the  draughtsman  \ and 
it  is  more  readily  acquired  than  may  be  at  first 
imagined.  It  serves  not  only  the  attainment  of 
accuracy,  and  lessens  his  labor,  but  insures  har- 
mony of  the  parts  and  details  with  one  another. 
It  also  tends  to  habituate  the  eye  to  the  observation 
of  the  true  character  and  forms  of  objects,  divesting  them,  as  it  were,  of  those  minor  details, 
which  often  obtrude  themselves,  and  lead  the  eye  and  hand  astray  from  the  first  broad  and 
general  impression  or  conception — which  is  of  primary  importance,  and  should  be  carefully 
secured  at  once,  and  never  lost  sight  of.  Herein  lies  one  of  the  great  secrets  of  the  ease  and 
freedom  in  the  expression  of  an  idea,  that  give  such  a charm  to  the  sketches  of  the  experi- 
enced artist  — by  which  he  conveys  his  impressions  in  a few  lines,  apparently  dashed  oft’  at  ran- 
dom, but  often  far  more  to  the  purpose,  and  more  expressive,  than  the  more  labored  effort 
of  the  less  gifted  or  less  educated  in  art. 


9 


G6 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


(v)  Having  thus  far  progressed  with  your  out- 
line, but  little  more  remains  to  be  done,  than  to 
ascertain  the  direction  of  the  lines  by  which  you  are 
to  express  the  toes,  and  to  complete  the  whole, 
in  like  manner,  and  upon  the  same  principles,  that 
have  thus  far  guided  you.  Carefully  examine  it 
throughout,  before  you  proceed  to  indicate  the  tints 
or  shadows,  which  should  be  deferred  until  the  ut- 
most accuracy  of  outline  is  first  attained  5 for,  you 
may  rest  assured,  that,  by  such  a course,  you  will 
secure  to  yourself  the  capacity  of  expressing  them  with  ease  and  freedom,  by  the  surest  means, 
(vi)  Compare  the  parts  and  proportions  of  the  original  with  your  copy.  Observe  that  the 

width  or  thickness  across  the  ankle  is  about  equal 
to  that  of  the  instep,  and  length  of  the  heel,  etc. 
Test  the  judgment  of  your  eye  first,  and  measure 
only  to  satisfy  yourself  of  its  accuracy.  By  such  a 
course,  you  will  soon  have  little  requirement  for 
rule  or  compass  (23).  By  an  imaginary  continua- 
tion of  the  curvatures  of  your  outline,  study  their 
movement,  relation,  and  bearing,  on  each  other. 
One  single  outline,  thus  studied  and  executed,  will 
advance  the  pupil  many  a certain  step,  and  render 
easy  the  few  remaining  examples  that  will  be  pre- 
sented to  him  in  the  course  of  these  elementary  instructions. 

80.  Presuming  that  the  learner  has  not  slighted  what  has  been  urged  upon  his  attention, 
but  that  he  has  bestowed  all  the  care,  study,  and  practice,  upon  this  example,  that  may  be 
requisite ; that  he  has,  therefore,  succeeded  in  producing,  if  not  by  one,  by  repeated  efforts,  a 
correct  outline,  he  is  fully  prepared  to  encounter  those  that  follow,  with  little  other  aid  than 
his  own  strength  and  intelligence.  If  he  has  failed,  let  him  be  again  reminded  to  retrace 
his  steps.  Let  him  depend  upon  it,  he  has  lost  or  overlooked  something,  or  perhaps  many 
things,  on  the  way,  that  he  will  need,  even  more  hereafter  than  now,  and  without  which, 
he  will  never  become  an  accomplished  draughtsman.  Let  him  now,  in  good  time,  look 
to  his  deficiences,  and  seek  their  correction.  It  is  a mistake  to  suppose  that,  to  acquire  a 


THE  HUMAN  FOOT. 


67 


knowledge  and  facility  of  drawing,  quires  must  be  consumed,  a multiplicity  of  examples  labored 
through,  and  portfolios  filled.  Although  few  examples  may  suffice  for  the  elucidation  of  the  first 
general  principles  of  drawing,  they  should  be  dwelt  upon  and  studied,  until  well  and  thoroughly 
understood  ; and  the  capacity  of  hand  should  be  made,  by  practice,  to  keep  pace  with  the 
understanding. 

81.  To  know  how  a thing  should  be  done,  is  not  enough  in  art : we  should  know  how  to  do 
it.  One  can  no  more  learn  to  swim,  without  going  into  the  water,  than  learn  to  draw  without 
practice  \ while  blind  practice,  unsupported  by  a degree  of  theoretical  knowledge,  is  liable  to 
mislead,  almost  as  directly,  from  the  right  way.  The  knowledge  of  how  a thing  should  be  done, 
and  the  capacity  to  do  it,  will,  if  kept,  as  far  as  possible,  in  equal  balance,  secure  certain  results. 
They  should  keep  pace  together,  mutually  supporting  and  assisting  in  the  attainment  of  the  one 
great  purpose.  If  one  should  gain  advantage,  either  by  reason  of  its  own  acquired  strength,  or 
weakness  of  the  other,  the  weaker  capacity  should  have  time  to  regain  its  lost  ground,  which,  in 
its  turn,  by  that  very  effort,  may  get  the  start  • but  let  them  never  lose  sight  of  one  another. 
Books  and  treatises  on  art,  therefore,  which  are  not  based  upon  practical  knowledge  of  its  ways 
and  means,  have  often  a most  mischievous  tendency,  and  go  far  to  the  dissemination  of  false 
ideas,  which  should  be  cautiously  received,  especially  by  the  student.  It  may  be  well  enough  for 
a writer,  who  possesses  not  the  power  of  expressing  one  line  of  art,  to  indulge  the  exuberance 
of  his  fancy  or  caprice,  by  dashing  forth  his  transcendent  ideas  with  regard  to  it ; but,  they  should 
only  be  received  for  what  they  are  worth — and  precious  little  will  their  worth  be  found,  in  most 
cases,  to  those  whose  business  is  production  — the  attainment  of  practical  results.  Not  but  that 
everything  that  can  be  said,  in  reference  to  art,  is  deserving  the  attention  of  its  followers,  yet 
the  judgment  should  be  prepared,  in  some  degree,  at  least,  before  it  can  arrive  at  just  conclusions, 
or  be  capable  of  exercising  proper  discrimination,  in  separating  vague  and  impracticable  theories 
from  those  that  are  well  digested  and  useful.  It  is  easy  for  the  learned  geographer  to  trace  the 
route,  to  distant  lands,  over  tempestuous  seas ; but  he  can  no  more  navigate  the  bark  to  them, 
than  the  merchant  who  sends  her  forth.  It  is  easy  to  say,  and  even  feel,  that  a picture,  a statue, 
or  any  other  work  of  art,  should  be  thus,  or  thus — should  be  perfection,  that  remote  idea  of 
perfection  in  itself  imperfect,  and  founded,  too  often,  on  false  or  capricious  notions 5 but,  he  who 
has  no  experience  of  the  way  to  reach  it,  can  never  make  it  plain  enough  to  others,  to  substitute 
his  dreamy  fancy  of  its  direction,  for  long-established  and  well-tried  landmarks,  whose  value  to  the 
student  has  been  proved  by  the  faithful  guidance  they  have  afforded  to  the  great  masters  of  art, 
who  have  reached  its  highest  perfection,  yet  attained.  Let  us,  therefore,  judge  of  the  mode  of 


08 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


/ 


culture  by  its  fruit,  nor  discard  the  old,  beaten,  well-known  path,  until  we  can  find  a better — one^ 
at  least,  that  some  traveller  has  pursued  with  success. 

82.  After  what  has  been  said,  in  relation  to  the  method  of  drawing  the  outline  of  the  previous 
example,  it  would  be  paying  but  a poor  compliment  to  the  intelligence  of  the  pupil,  to  enter 
into  a repetition  of  it,  in  reference  to  the  above.  It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  however,  that  the 
general  principle,  rather  than  any  arbitrary  process,  of  forming  comparisons  in  relation  to  the 
parts,  or  of  ascertaining  and  expressing  the  true  direction  of  the  lines,  their  movement,  form,  and 
connexion,  most  particularly  require  his  attention,  and  should  be  the  main  object  of  his  study  and 
practice.  The  outline  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  has  been  taken  as  a basis,  or  starting  point,  because 


THE  HUMAN  FOOT. 


69 


/ 

/ 


its  direction  and  quantities  were  more  easily  defined  5 but  it  does  not  follow,  that  it  should  be  taken 
thus  in  all  instances,  as  there  are  many  positions  of  the  foot,  in  which  it  may  be  secondary,  and 
more  dependent  on  other  leading  points  and  lines.  Proper  judgment,  therefore,  should  be  exer- 
cised, in  the  selection  of  the  line,  or  lines,  most  expressive  of  the  general  action  and  character 
of  the  object  to  be  represented.  This  important  beginning  once  made,  farther  details  must 
naturally  assume  their  just  positions  and  connexion  to  the  whole,  as  well  as  to  one  another  — 
besides,  serving  in  the  process  as  correctives.  If,  for  instance,  the  length  of  the  foot  should  be 
too  long,  or  too  short,  the  moment  the  points  indicating  the  true  length  of  the  heel  and  toes  are 
decided  upon,  the  length  of  the  hollow  of  the  foot,  between  the  two,  will  be  evidently  too  long  or 
too  short.  A primary  error  is  thus  detected,  by  comparison  with  the  other  parts,  in  time  for 


■ 


70 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


correction;  and  so  on  — the  draughtsman  is  enabled,  by  balancing  all  the  parts  and  proportions 
with  one  another,  and  studying  their  relations  to  the  whole,  to  adjust  and  express  his  outline 
with  an  accuracy  and  certainty,  that  can  never  be  acquired  without  some  such  systematic  method 
of  execution,  which,  if  cultivated  in  time,  will  soon  become  a habit.  This  method  presents,  among 
many  other  advantages,  one  that  will  be  found  highly  important,  in  reducing  or  enlarging  an 
object ; for,  having  once  generalized  the  whole,  according  to  the  scale  of  reduction  or  enlarge- 
ment desired,  the  just  proportions  of  the  parts,  and  minor  details,  are  readily  attained,  and  made 
to  harmonize  with  the  whole,  in  accordance  with  such  scale  of  reduction  or  enlargement.  By 
thus  progressing,  in  the  drawing  of  an  outline,  from  generals  to  particulars,  much  greater  ease,  as 
well  as  certainty  of  accuracy,  is  the  result,  than  by  an  opposite  course ; for,  by  beginning  with 
details,  and  the  lesser  parts,  we  are  apt  to  be  led  astray  from  the  general  and  characteristic 
lines  and  quantities  of  the  object  of  imitation. 

83.  Lest  what  has  been  previously  said  on  this  subject  (61)  should  not  be  sufficiently  under- 
stood, and  appear  contradictory  to  that  which  is  now  urged,  it  may  be  well  to  remark,  that,  while 
it  is  recommended  to  the  pupil  to  make  himself  proficient,  first,  in  the  drawing  of  minor  objects, 
it  is  not  meant,  thereby,  that  he  should  begin  the  drawing  of  a head,  by  drawing  the  features 
singly,  before  he  generalizes  the  whole,  and  ascertains  their  true  positions.  In  drawing  the  most 
simple  object,  there  is  a general  character  to  be  preserved,  and  particular  component  parts,  or 
details,  making  up  that  whole : and  all  must  perfectly  harmonize  together.  The  same  principle 
applies  to  the  delineation  of  a single  mouth,  an  eye,  a nose,  a face,  a head,  a foot,  a hand,  a 
limb,  a figure,  a group,  and  a picture.  Each  should  be  considered  in  itself  a whole,  made  up 
of  subordinate  parts,  from  the  most  simple  detail,  and  line  by  which  it  is  expressed,  to  the  most 
elaborate  work  of  art.  Thus  will  the  eye  and  hand  become  strengthened,  by  progressive  study 
and  practice,  and  the  capacity  advanced  by  degrees,  almost  imperceptibly,  under  the  safe  guidance 
of  the  one,  like,  universal  principle. 

84.  The  first  conception,  and  consequently  the  first  impression,  to  the  mind  of  the  artist,  of 
his  picture,  is  of  its  general  character ; and  it  is  produced  by  gradually  descending,  in  its  exe- 
cution, to  the  parts  and  details  — each  in  their  turn  of  subordinate  and  relative  importance. 
This  must  also  be  its  first  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  beholder : he,  too,  is  led  to  descend, 
in  its  contemplation,  from  generals  to  particulars.  The  rules  of  production  and  just  apprecia- 
tion, naturally  assimilating  to  one  another,  no  elaboration  of  details  can  compensate  for  an 
unfavorable  first  and  general  impression,  nor  the  toil  and  labor,  bestowed  upon  them,  meet  their 


THE  HUMAN  FOOT. 


71 


reward,  unless  kept  in  proper  relation,  harmony,  and  subordinate  service,  to  the  whole.  The 
principle  is  the  same,  whether  the  drawing,  or  picture,  be  the  representation  of  the  most  simple 
object,  drawn  by  a tyro  in  art,  or  the  most  elaborate  composition,  by  the  most  accomplished 
artist.  Let  it  be  clearly  and  expressly  understood,  therefore,  by  the  pupil.  He  should  first  learn 
to  draw  simple  and  single  parts  ; then  objects  and  figures  ; then  pictures  ; and  consider  each  a 
whole  with  its  parts  — that  whole  assuming  the  relation  of  a component  part  to  a greater  whole  — 
and  thus  progressively  advance  his  capacity  of  observation  and  execution : never  losing  sight  of 
the  broad  principles,  upon  which  he  has  started,  and  upon  which  he  must  still  rely,  in  the  highest 
efforts  to  which  he  may  be  tempted  hereafter.  The  proper  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
these  principles,  will  direct  the  judgment  aright  in  estimating  the  value  of  detail  in  particulars, 
in  the  expression  of  a general  idea,  and  conveying  its  desired  impression.  For,  although,  a 
drawing  of  an  oak-leaf,  if  the  mere  representation  of  an  oak  leaf  be  the  object,  should  be 
exact  and  true,  in  all  its  markings  and  peculiarities,  it  does  not  follow,  that,  in  drawing  the  tree , 
we  should  draw  every  leaf  of  it  5 the  importance  of  minor  details  being,  to  a certain  degree,  lost 
in  the  general  effect  of  the  whole.  And  yet,  he  who  can  not  draw  the  one,  will  never  succeed 
in  producing  a correct  resemblance  of  the  other.  The  leaf  is  the  easiest,  and,  if  properly 
studied,  develops  as  clearly  the  principles  of  design,  by  which  the  tree  may  be  expressed  5 and, 

therefore,  should  be  placed  first  before  the  pupil.  In  its  application  to  the  higher  departments 

/ 

of  art,  this  leading  principle  is  still  more  impressive  5 but,  at  this  period  of  the  student’s  advance- 
ment, it  would  be  out  of  place,  to  enter  as  minutely  into  the  subject  as  may  be  done  hereafter, 
when  his  discrimination  and  capacity  may  be  more  matured,  and  his  mind  better  prepared  for 
its  comprehension. 

85.  A well-formed  foot  is  rarely  met  with,  in  our  day,  from  the  lamentable  distortion  it  is 
doomed  to  endure,  by  the  fashion  of  our  shoes  and  boots.  Instead  of  being  allowed  the  same 
freedom  as  the  fingers,  to  exercise  the  purposes  for  which  nature  intended  them,  the  toes  are 
cramped  together,  and  of  little  more  value,  than  if  they  were  all  in  one  — their  joints  enlarged, 
stiffened,  and  distorted,  — forced  and  packed  together;  often  overlapping  one  another  in  sad 
confusion,  and  wantonly  placed  beyond  the  power  of  service.  As  for  the  little  toe,  and  its 
neighbor,  in  a shoe-deformed  foot,  they  are  usually  thrust  out  of  the  way  altogether,  as  if  con- 
sidered supernumerary  and  useless,  while  all  the  work  is  thrown  upon  the  great  toe,  although 
that,  too,  is  scarcely  allowed  working-room,  in  its  prison-house  of  leather.  It  is  therefore 
hopeless  to  look  to  a foot,  that  has  grown  under  the  restraint  of  leather,  for  perfection  of 
form ; and  hence,  the  feet  of  children,  although  less  marked,  in  their  external  anatomical 


72  RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


development,  present  the  best  models  for  the  study  and  exercise  of  the  pupil  in  drawing.  It  is 
unfortunate,  that  so  few  fine  specimens  of  the  hand  and  foot  have  remained  to  us,  from  the 
antique,  from  the  fact,  that  these  extremities  have  been  more  liable  to  injury  and  loss,  from  the 
casualties  and  neglect  to  which  they  have  been  subject,  during  the  long  night  of  ages  of  ruin  and 
desolation  through  which  they  have  passed  ; but  we  have  enough  to  show  how  well  the  ancient 
artists  understood  and  appreciated  the  beauty  and  perfection  of  these  members.  If  possible,  the 
pupil  should  always  have  by  him  one  or  two  good  specimens  from  the  antique  — and  they  can 
be  readily  procured  in  plaster  — to  correct  his  judgment,  and  impress  upon  him  the  true  and 
perfect  form  of  the  foot  5 for  he  will  rarely  meet  with  it,  in  nature,  and  yet  these  very  stand- 
ards of  perfection  are  derived  from  nature. 


THE  HUMAN  F O O T . 


73 


86.  An  example  on  the  next  page,  drawn  from  the  antique,  shows  how  rarely,  if  ever,  is 
found  in  one  living  model,  whose  feet  have  endured  the  restraint  of  shoes,  the  combination  there 
seen,  of  beautiful  form  and  proportion,  ease  and  elasticity  of  motion,  as  well  as  admirable  expres- 
sion of  adaptation,  and  power  for  use  and  purpose  throughout.  And  how  have  they  been  pro- 
duced ? By  no  magical  touch.  Although  the  work  of  genius,  genius  could  have  done  nothing, 
unless  aided  by  knowledge,  observation,  and  practical  experience  : and  this  is  the  business  of  the 
student,  and  must  form  his  constant  pursuit — for  there  is  no  end  to  the  pursuit  of  excellence  in 
art.  The  spirit  and  capacity  for  investigation  are  gradually  advanced,  as  the  perception  and 
taste  become  quickened  and  purified.  An  unsatisfied  thirst  for  knowledge  for  ever  leads  to 
the  great  fountain-head  of  all  art  — the  study  of  nature  ; and  no  sure  system  of  education  in  art 
can  be  devised,  diverging  from  this  well-tried  course.  To  possess  this  capacity  for  just  selection 
and  combination,  we  must  become  familiar  with  nature  as  she  is.  By  study  and  comparison,  the 
eye  must  be  made  sensitive,  and,  by  practice,  the  hand  must  be  made  obedient.  We  must 
become  practically  familiar  with  the  power  of  art,  in  the  imitation  of  nature,  before  we  can  select 
with  proper  judgment,  and  combine  with  knowledge,  her  diffused  beauties.  It  is  this  high 
attainment  that  marks  the  best  works  of  the  ancient  masters } and,  while  they  enchant  all  with 
their  marvellous  beauty,  the  most  learned  pronounce  them  faultless  — true  to  nature  : and  yet,  in 
nature,  wTe  look  in  vain  to  find  similar  happy  combinations.  But  to  pursue  this  subject  farther, 
at  this  time,  would  be  to  lose  sight  of  the  purposes  of  these  elementary  instructions,  which  are 
intended  to  lay  a secure  foundation  j glancing,  occasionally,  at  the  more  finished  structure,  by  way 
of  encouragement  and  incentive,  to  those  who  may  not  be  sufficiently  impressed  with  the  impor- 
tance of  so  broad  a basis,  and  who  might  otherwise  weary  in  the  good  work. 

87.  Without  entering  into  farther  detail,  with  regard  to  the  following  examples,  they  are 
placed  before  the  student,  with  the  hope  that  enough  has  been  said  already,  to  render  the  prin- 
ciples of  drawing  easy  of  comprehension  and  practical  application.  One  thing  can  not  be  too 
often  repeated,  or  too  urgently  impressed  upon  him— - the  importance  of  a correct  outline.  An 
early-acquired  and  premature  facility,  in  expressing  tints,  “ in  working  up  a drawing,”  as  it  is 
termed,  has  led  many  astray  from  the  first  purpose  of  art  — truth  and  accuracy  — which  a piece 
of  chalk  or  charcoal,  in  a skilful  hand,  will  express  more  certainly,  on  a rough  wall  or  board, 
than  the  most  delicate  touch,  or  the  most  exquisite  materials,  can  ever  accomplish,  unless  guided 
by  sound  elementary  knowledge  of  the  great  first  principles  of  art.  It  should  be  remembered, 
too,  that  shadows  and  tints  have  an  outline  to  be  preserved,  and  accurately  expressed,  in 

accordance  with  the  effect  produced  on  the  object  of  imitation  : less  strongly  marked,  in  most 

.10 


74 


rudiments  of  drawing 


cases,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  there.  By  the  aid  of  shadows  is  developed  the  true  form  of  the  model ; 
and  to  parts  more  or  less  advanced  or  depressed,  are  thereby  given  a location,  as  decided  and 
certain  as  if  seen  in  profile.  So  truly  can  they  be  expressed,  on  a flat  surface,  that  a sculptor 
can  model  a bust,  from  a picture,  and  the  eye  may  be  so  completely  deceived,  by  their  close 
representation,  as  scarcely  to  distinguish  the  reality  from  its  counterfeit.  It  is,  therefore,  as 
essentially  necessary  to  preserve  the  forms,  masses,  and  proportions,  of  shadows,  as  of  the  more 


THE  HUMAN  HAND. 


75 


substantial  parts  of  the  object  of  imitation  5 and  the  surest  way  to  acquire  facility  in  expressing 
them,  is  to  proceed  in  precisely  the  same  manner  with  them,  as  with  other  details  and  accessories. 

88.  The  Hand,  although  more  difficult  to  draw  than  the  foot,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
peculiar  structure,  but  the  great  variety  of  action  and  position,  of  which  it  is  capable,  presents 
greater  facility  of  study  to  the  draughtsman,  is  better  understood,  and  more  familiar  to  our  obser- 


7(3 


THE  HUMAN  HAND 


77 


vation.  What  has  been  said,  with  regard  to  the  difficulty  of  finding,  in  nature,  beautiful  and 
well-formed  feet,  does  not  apply  to  the  hands,  for  they  are  often  to  be  met  with,  of  the  most 
exquisite  form  and  just  proportions  j and  there  are  no  objects  in  nature,  the  study  of  which  is 
better  calculated  to  strengthen  the  general  capacity  of  the  student,  in  the  art  of  drawing.  If  he 
can  draw  a hand,  with  ease  and  accuracy,  he  can  draw  anything.  Let  him,  therefore,  set  about 
the  work  with  earnestness,  for  success  will  place  him  in  a position,  from  which  he  can  look  with 


^ > 


78 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


pleasure  on  the  labor  by  which  it  has  been  attained,  and  forward  to  the  assured  consummation 


of  his  most  ardent  aspirations. 


89.  If  the  importance  of  first  securing  the 
general  form  of  the  head  and  foot  has  been 
already  felt,  it  will  be  evident,  with  greater  force, 
in  drawing  the  hand,  especially  when  the  fingers 
are  extended.  Let  us,  therefore,  have  recourse 
to  a reduction  of  the  outline  of  this  first  example 
of  the  hand,  to  explain  more  fully  the  method  or 
process  by  which  it  can  be  most  readily  obtained. 
When  once  the  general  form  of  the  principal 
and  most  massive  portion  of  the  hand,  extending 
from  the  wrist  to  the  beginning  of  the  fingers, 
is  ascertained,  and  indicated  with  accuracy,  next 
decide  upon  the  length,  expansion,  and  relative 
position,  of  the  fingers,  as  a group,  and  then 
proceed  with  each,  in  its  turn  of  relative  impor- 
tance, continually  comparing  and  verifying  your 
conclusions,  as  you  advance,  by  the  method 
already  explained ; never  losing  sight  of  the 
general  character  of  the  whole,  and  keeping  the 
parts  in  perfect  harmony  of  action  with  it.  This 
example  may  be  found  even  more  difficult  than 
those  that  follow ; but  it  is  well  for  the  pupil 
to  have  his  strength  tested,  and  if  he  has  ear- 
nestly, and  successfully,  followed  the  line  of  study 
marked  out  for  him,  thus  far,  he  may  be  safely 
said  to  be  even  now  within  sight  of  the  more 
pleasant  ways  of  art,  with  assurance  of  strength 
and  capacity  to  enter  upon  the  broad  and  bound- 
less field  that  lies  before  him.  A little  farther, 
and  the  elementary  work  is  done,  and  another 
and  higher,  is  begun.  But,  before  the  one  is 


THE  HUMAN  HAND 


79 


accomplished,  or  the  pupil  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  other,  he  must  be  fully  impressed  with 
the  practical  application  of  the  general  principles  of  design,  which  it  has  been  the  purpose  of 
these  pages  to  inculcate,  not  only  with  reference  to  the  examples  placed  before  him,  but  to  all 
other  objects.  He  must  not  only  possess  a perfect  comprehension  of  the  method,  but  practically 
assure  himself  of  its  value,  by  repeated  and  careful  trials. 


80 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


THE  HUMAN  HAND. 


81 


11 


THE  HUMAN  FIGURE. 


83 


90.  After  having  required  the  devotion  of 
so  much  time  and  study  to  the  delineation  of 
the  head,  hand,  and  foot,  the  figure,  as  a whole, 
might  appear  of  sufficient  relative  importance 
to  demand  a larger  space  than  will  be  devoted 
to  it,  at  this  time.  It  should  be  remembered, 
that  these  elementary  instructions  are  inductive 
and  preparatory  to  that  more  concise  consid- 
eration and  study  of  the  anatomical  construction  of  the 
human  frame,  essential  to  those  who  aspire  to  the  attain- 
ment of  excellence  in  the  higher  branches  of  art,  which 
do  not  strictly  belong  to  the  mere  rudiments  of  drawing. 
Until  the  mind  and  hand  have  been  schooled  to  act  har- 
moniously together,  until  the  broad  principles  of  design  are 
first  developed  to  the  understanding  of  the  pupil,  and  he  is 
made  to  feel  wants  beyond  those  of  the  beginner,  it  is  not 
only  useless,  but  even  prejudicial  to  his  advancement,  to 
confuse  his  mind  with  theories  and  treatises,  which  he  can 
not  fully  understand,  nor  practically  apply.  To  talk  to  him 
of  bones  and  muscles,  before  he  has  attained  sufficient 
command  of  hand  and  eye  to  draw,  with  at  least  some 
degree  of  facility,  more  simple  forms  and  objects,  is  like 
pitching  one,  headlong,  into  a deep  and  rapid  current,  to 
teach  him  to  swim. 


91.  If  the  interest  of  the  student  has  been  excited, 
and  his  attention  bestowed  upon  what  has  been  already 
said,  and  so  earnestly  urged  upon  him,  and  he  has  mastered  the  examples  of  the  head,  hand, 
and  foot,  already  given,  he  will  experience  but  little  difficulty  in  drawing  any  form  or  figure  that 
he  may  attempt.  When  it  is  said  that  he  possesses  the  capacity  to  draw  a figure,  it  should  not 
be  understood,  thereby,  that  he  is  capable  of  that  careful  elaboration,  or  minute  exactness,  in  lines 
or  details,  that  is  only  acquired  by  long  practice,  and  repeated  acts  5 but,  he  will  be  able  to 
express  the  general  form,  proportions,  and  action,  of  his  model : he  will  be  able,  thence,  to 


\ 


84 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


descend  to  the  parts  and  details : he  will  be  able  to  do  this  upon  fixed  and  certain  principles, 
which,  if  properly  understood,  appreciated,  and  applied,  will  never  mislead  him. 

_ % 

92.  Let  the  pupil  now  attempt  to  draw  the  outline  of  this  first  example  of  the  full  figure, 
without  having  recourse  to  measurement,  and  without  reference  to  other  rules  of  proportion,  than 
such  as  may  be  suggested  by  the  careful  observation  of  the  figure  before  him,  and  by  precisely 
the  same  method  by  which  he  has  drawn  the  head,  hand,  and  foot,  separately.  He  will  see,  at  a 
glance,  that  a perpendicular  line,  drawn  from  the  upper  lip,  would  intersect  the  point  where  the 


THE  HUMAN 


FIGURE. 


S.'> 


instep  joins  the  leg ; and,  having  decided  upon  the  height  of  the  figure,  he  has  already  a certain 
basis,  and  starting  points.  Next,  observe  well  the  relation  of  the  parts,  proportions,  and  char- 
acter of  the  general  contour  of  the  figure  to  this  imaginary  perpendicular  line.  The  drapery 
takes  one  continued  sweep,  slightly  modulated,  by  the  form  of  the  figure,  from  the  heel  to  the 
left  shoulder ; which  line,  if  farther  extended,  would  touch  the  outline  of  the  forehead,  intersecting 
the  assumed  perpendicular  line  on  the  nostril : this  gives,  also,  the  direction  of  the  head.  The 
lines  of  the  back  and  shoulders,  those  of  the  left  leg,  and  the  more  massive  portions  of  the 
figure,  are,  in  like  manner,  to  be  ascertained,  drawn,  and  verified  (fig  ii  ).  The  hands  and  arms, 


S6 


RUDIMENTS  Q F D R A W I N (I. 


ihe  most  difficult  parts  of  the  figure,  are  yet  to  be  drawn.  It  will  be  perceived,  that  the  lower 
point  of  the  union  of  the  right  hand  (fig.  hi  ) with  the  wrist,  is  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the 
head ; and  that  the  corresponding  point  of  the  left  hand  is  on  a level  with  the  nostril.  The 
distance  of  the  hands  from  the  head  are  next  to  be  ascertained  ; which  may  be  done  by  com- 
parison with  the  parts  and  proportions  already  decided  upon,  and  by  the  imaginary  extension 
of  such  certain  lines,  already  drawn,  as  may  most  readily  direct  to  the  desired  purpose.  For 
example  : if  the  outline  of  the  hip  were  extended  upward,  it  would  strike  the  outline  of  the  right 
arm  at  the  elbow,  and  continue  with  it  to  the  wrist — which  has  been  already  decided  upon,  as 
being  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the  head.  Thus  the  position  of  the  right  hand  is  ascertained ; 
which  may  be  farther  verified,  by  the  method  of  comparison,  and  studying  its  relation  to  other 
parts.  The  true  position  of  the  right  hand,  once  secured,  those  of  the  left  hand,  the  arms,  etc., 
may  be  easily  obtained  ; and,  having  completed  the  general  contour  of  the  figure,  but  little 
difficulty  will  be  encountered  in  the  delineation  of  the  parts  and  details.  The  position  of  the 
head  having  been  already  ascertained,  draw  the  features  in  harmony  with  it  (56)  5 and  thus 
proceed  with  the  hands,  feet,  and  other  details.  If  the  first  example  given  of  the  hand  (89),  has 
been  fully  understood,  and  what  has  been  said  with  reference  to  it  has  been  practically  applied, 
but  little  difficulty  will  be  found  in  drawing  the  arms,  etc.,  of  this  figure.  Remember  to  com- 
pare and  measure,  by  the  eye,  every  part,  proportion,  and  line,  of  the  object  before  you  (fig.  iv)  ; 
and  do  not  forget,  that  beneath  the  drapery  there  are  limbs,  whose  action,  and  just  positions, 
are  to  be  preserved  (62). 

93.  Let  it  be  presumed  that  the  pupil  has  succeeded,  probably  not  without  repeated  efforts, 
in  producing  a fair  drawing  of  this  figure  : its  lines,  its  proportions,  the  bearing  and  relation  of 
its  parts  and  details  to  one  another,  are  strongly  impressed  upon  his  mind.  While  these  impres- 
sions are  still  vivid,  close  the  book,  and  try  how  true  your  memory  may  be  5 how  far  it  can  be 
trusted,  by  drawing  the  figure  by  its  aid  — for  this  is  another  and  most  important  application 
of  the  method,  which  has  been  urged,  from  the  beginning,  as  one  of  universal  practical  application. 
When  made  familiar  to  the  draughtsman,  by  practice,  he  is  enabled  to  seize,  at  once,  the  leading 
character  of  an  object,  however  restless  it  may  be,  or  transient  his  opportunity  of  observation ; to 
fix  it  upon  his  memory,  without  drawing  a line  at  the  moment,  and  to  reproduce  it  at  will.  It  is  by 
this  matured  capacity  that  he  is  able  to  catch  the  fleeting  expression  of  a face,  or  the  action  of  a 
figure,  and  to  represent  them  with  a degree  of  accuracy,  as  wonderful  to  the  uninitiated  as  service- 
able to  him  5 for  it  gives  him  a power,  in  observing  and  recording  the  changing  beauties  of 
nature,  which  is  denied  to  those  who  can  only  draw  the  inert  model  before  them. 


THE  H U M A iN  FIGURE. 


87 


94.  Without  crowding  the  limited  space  allotted  to  these  elementary  instructions,  with  more 
numerous  examples  of  the  figure,  than  will  be  found  scattered  throughout  the  chapters  devoted 
to  them,  and  directing  the  pupil  to  the  study  of  nature,  and  such  good  specimens  in  prints, 
drawings,  or  pictures,  as  may  be  within  his  reach,  it  may  be  expedient  to  give  him,  in  conclusion, 
some  general  ideas  of  the  proportions  of  the  human  figure  5 which  are  not  intended  to  be  used  as 
recipes  for  u building  up  figures,”  but  to  aid  in  the  observation  and  delineation  of  nature. 


38 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


95.  The  Proportions  of  the  Human  Figure  have  been  a subject  of  much  consideration, 
and  volumes  have  been  compiled,  by  artists  and  others,  in  relation  thereto.  Although  generally 
agreeing,  in  the  most  important  points,  there  is  still  so  much  difference  of  opinion,  with  regard  to 
details,  that  it  would  tend  rather  to  confuse,  than  elucidate  the  subject,  to  the  mind  of  the  student, 
to  place  before  him  the  various  opinions  and  rules  that  have  been  published  from  time  to  time. 
Should  his  pursuit  of  art  be  extended  to  its  higher  walks,  he  will,  in  that  great  school  of  art — 
the  study  of  nature  — aided  by  the  best  and  most  approved  productions,  learn  to  form  just 
conclusions,  and,  weighing  the  value  of  conflicting  opinions,  deduct  for  himself  such  rules  and 
principles  of  proportion  as  may,  in  his  mature  judgment,  form  the  best  and  truest  standard  of 
excellence  and  beauty. 

96.  The  scale  of  proportions,  most  generally  received,  is  that  of  Gerard  de  Lairesse ; and 
they  will  be  found  ample  for  the  present  purposes  of  the  student.  It  will  rarely  happen,  that  he 
has  occasion  to  draw  a figure  perfectly  erect,  and  with  all  the  limbs  seen,  without  some  degree 
of  foreshortening  ; due  allowance,  therefore,  must  be  made  for  these  circumstantial  variations. 

Taking  seven  and  a half  heads,  as  the  average  proportion  in  the  height  of  a well-formed 
man,  and  dividing  each  head  into  four  parts,  will  necessarily  give  thirty  parts  to  the  whole 
figure.  Three  parts  make  up  the  length  of  the  visage  (56)  — consequently,  ten  faces  will  be 
the  measure  of  the  Figure  : and  thus  its  proportions,  by  that  scale  : — 

1 face  from  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  nostrils. 

1 from  the  nostrils  to  the  extremity  of  the  throat,  or  hollow  between  the  collar-bones. 

1 from  that  point  to  the  bottom  of  the  breast. 

2 to  the  bottom  of  the  trunk,  which  is  one  half  the  whole  height,  or  centre  of  the  figure. 

2 to  the  upper  part  of  the  knee. 

\ or  1^  half  parts,  is  contained  in  the  knee. 

2 from  the  lower  part  of  the  knee  to  the  inner  ankle. 

\ or  H parts,  thence  to  the  sole  of  the  foot : — making 

10  faces  to  the  figure. 

The  quarter  divisions  of  the  figure  are  at — 

I.  The  armpits.  III.  The  knees. 

II.  The  bottom  of  the  trunk.  IV.  The  sole  of  the  foot. 

When  a well-formed  man  extends  his  arms  to  their  utmost  stretch,  the  measure,  from  their 
extremities,  equals  his  height. 


THE  HUMAN  FIGURE. 


89 


W 

M 

t> 


>- 

O 

W 

CO 


2 3 03  4 5 Faces 


The  longest  toe  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  nose. 

The  hand  is  the  length  of  the  face. 

Twice  the  breadth  of  the  hand  gives  its  length. 

The  breadth  of  the  hand  is  equal  that  of  the  foot. 

The  thumb  is  one  nose  in  length. 

These  measures  may  suffice  for  imparting  a general  idea  of  the  proportionate  dimensions  of 
figures ; at  least,  they  will  be  found  sufficient  for  the  pupil  at  this  time. 


90 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING!. 


97.  In  conclusion,  by  reference  to  some  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  antique  statues,  it  will 
be  seen  how  nearly  one  average  height  of  the  figure,  and  proportion  of  the  head  to  it,  has  been 
observed.  The  Farnese  Hercules  is,  in  height,  supposing  the  figure  erect,  seven  heads,  three 
parts,  and  seven  minutes  (twelve  minutes  are  allowed  to  a part)  ; the  Antinous  of  the  Vatican, 
seven  heads  and  two  parts  ; the  Laocoon,  seven  heads,  two  parts,  and  three  minutes ; the  Dying 
Gladiator  of  the  Capitol,  eight  heads  ; the  Apollo  Belvidere,  seven  heads,  three  parts,  and  six 
minutes  5 the  Venus  de  Medici,  seven  heads  and  three  parts;  and  the  Grecian  Shepherdess,  at 
Naples,  seven  heads,  three  parts,  and  six  minutes. 

98.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  proportions  of  the  figure  vary  in  almost  every 
individual ; and  from  infancy  to  manhood,  they  undergo  most  marked  changes.  Taking  the  size 
of  the  head,  as  a scale  of  measurement : the  whole  length  of  a child,  two  months  old,  will  be 
found  rarely  to  exceed  four  times  the  height  of  his  head ; — at  one  year,  four  and  a half  heads;  — 
at  three  years,  five  and  a quarter;  — at  five  years,  scarcely  six ; — at  ten  years,  six  and  a half ; — 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen,  about  seven;  — and  thence,  to  manhood,  seven  and  a half,  and  some- 
times eight. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 

OF  MANNER  OR  METHOD— THE  ART  OF  WRITING,  IN  CONNEXION  WITH  DRAWING— GENERAL  INSTRUC- 
TIONS, ETC.— CONCLUSION. 


"Fwules  are  to  be  considered  as  fences  placed  only 
c ] where  trespass  is  expected." — Reynolds. 


HUS  far,  the  use  of  the 
pen,  as  an  instrument 
for  drawing,  has  been 
strongly  urged,  for  rea- 
sons already  explained  5 
nor  should  it  ever  be 
laid  aside  or  neglected. 
Too  great  importance  is 
often  attached  to  the 
mere  imitation  of  man- 
ner, particularly  in  cop- 
ying from  the  works  of 

others ; and  if  more  thought  and  pains  were  bestowed  upon  the  principles  of  design,  and  less 
upon  the  imitation  of  the  touch  or  peculiarities  of  individual  artists,  there  would  be  more  leaders, 
and  fewer  servile  followers,  who,  in  emulating  and  imitating  the  means,  lose  sight  of  the  groat 
ends  of  art.  (J1 


l>2 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


99.  The  test  of  excellence,  in  a method  or  manner,  is  its  approach  to  precision,  and  distinct- 
ness of  expression,  by  which  an  object,  or  thought,  is  most  clearly  represented.  He  that  has  a 
clear  perception  of  the  one,  or  the  other,  if  assisted  by  proper  education,  will  not  be  long  in 
finding  a manner  or  method  of  conveying  it,  in  his  own  way,  far  better  than  by  any  he  can 
borrow  of  another.  It  is  often  painful  to  see  the  toil  bestowed  upon  a drawing,  on  which  weeks 
and  months  have  been  worn  away,  in  efforts  to  attain  the  peculiar  touch  of  an  example  set  before 
the  pupil,  without  one  thought  of  the  sentiment,  general  character,  or  expression,  of  the  original : 
to  which  the  work,  method,  or  manner,  was  only  considered  secondary  by  its  author  — as  if, 
to  write  like  Shakespeare,  meant  no  more  than  to  copy  his  handwriting. 

100.  Should  the  pupil  now  desire  to  try  the  pencil  or  crayon,  he  may  do  so  with  profit  and 
propriety ; and  he  will  find  the  use  he  has  made  of  the  pen  has  given  his  hand  a degree  of 
precision  of  touch,  that  he  should  never  suffer  it  to  lose  in  the  use  of  other  instruments,  that  are 
apt  to  lead  to  carelessness,  because  their  work  can  be  easily  erased,  or  errors  committed,  readily 
disguised.  In  schools,  as  well  as  in  private  instruction,  Indian  rubber,  stale  bread,  and  all  other 
devices  for  erasure,  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  kept  out  of  the  way ; and  thus  errors  will  be 
avoided,  by  the  absence  of  the  ready  means  of  other  correction  than  a renewed  effort,  the 
preservation  of  their  evidence,  and  consequent  remembrance,  and  care,  to  prevent  their  recur- 
rence in  future  attempts. 

101.  Although  it  might  be  better  to  leave  the  pupil  to  the  selection  of  his  own  method,  or 
manner,  of  expressing  that  which  he  desires  to  represent,  after  he  has  perfected  its  general 
outline,  and  to  direct  his  attention  to  such  a variety  of  drawings,  by  different  artists,  as  may  be 
within  his  reach  — rather  than  those  by  any  one  individual  hand — yet,  a few  hints  on  the  subject 
may  be  found  serviceable  to  him. 

102.  The  instructions  which  have  been  given,  in  reference  to  the  use  of  the  pen,  are  equally 
applicable  to  the  pencil,  crayon,  or  chalk.  The  practice  of  the  primary  lessons,  on  straight  and 
curved  lines,  will  be  found  to  have  been  essentially  useful,  in  acquiring  that  command  of  hand, 
without  which,  proficiency  in  drawing  is  of  no  easy  attainment.  As  in  nature,  objects  take  every 
variety  of  form  and  direction,  so  should  the  lines  or  touches,  used  in  their  delineation,  have  equal 
freedom  in  their  direction,  and  always  adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  as  expressive  as  possible,  of 
the  true  form  and  character  of  the  original.  This  may,  at  first,  appear  difficult  ; but,  by  obser- 
vation, study,  and  practice,  it  may  be  soon  acquired. 


93 


MANNER  OR  METHOD. 

Suppose,  for  example,  we  desire  to  represent  a square 
block,  with  a smooth,  even  surface : the  greater  degree 
of  evenness  and  regularity  that  we  can  preserve  in  the 
lines,  the  nearer  we  will  approach  its  faithful  resem- 
blance ; and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  its  surface  be  broken, 
or  uneven,  we  must  have  recourse  to  lines,  by  which 
that  character  can  be  most  readily  expressed. 


To  represent  a rude  stake,  water-worn  and  scraggy,  far  different  lines  are  requisite,  than  if 
the  object  of  imitation  were  a smooth  and  well-rounded  post. 


94 


RUDIMENTS 


O F DRAWING 


It  would  be  in  vain  to  attempt  the  representation  of  the  effect  of  a brisk  breeze,  and  a dead 
calm,  upon  the  water,  by  lines  similar  in  character ; or,  by  the  same  touch,  to  express  the  woolly 


' 


t 


and  rounded  form  of  a sheep,  and  the  hairy  covering,  and  more  abrupt  lines  and  action,  of 

a goat. 

103.  The  imitation,  by  beginners,  of  off-hand 
sketches,  or  memoranda,  by  practised  artists, 
however  spirited,  and  often  effective,  should  be 
discouraged.  They  are,  frequently,  little  more 
than  the  short-hand  notes  of  a writer  — intelligible 
to  him,  but  only  conveying,  to  others,  faint  and 
uncertain  ideas — dashed  off  in  a moment  of 
haste,  or  under  circumstances  that  would  preclude 

95 


96 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


the  possibility  of  doing  more  at  the  time,  intended  for  the  private  use  of  the  artist  alone,  and 
serving  to  preserve  the  recollection  of  the  subject  upon  his  mind,  for  future  elaboration.  To 
him,  such  sketches  are  invaluable  3 but,  for  the  use  of  others,  something  more  is  required.  A 


drawing  and  a sketch  are  two  different  things.  Although  one  must  learn  to  draw7,  before  he 
can  sketch,  the  capacity  for  one  is  dependent  upon  the  other. 


MANNER  OR  METHOD. 


97 


104.  What  can  a beginner  learn,  by  the  imitation  of  such  a sketch  as  the  following? — and  yet, 

it  is  a fac-simile,  the  size  of  the  original,  of  Wilkie’s  first  sketch 
or  idea,  of  his  picture  of  the  Rabbit  on  the  Wall.  To  the  eye 
and  understanding  of  the  artist,  every  line  may  have  had  pur- 
pose and  meaning ; but,  beyond  the  interest  ii  excites,  as  the 
germ  of  a finished  work  of  art,  it  is,  in  a measure,  valueless : and 
as  an  object  of  imitation  for  the  student,  it  certainly  presents  but 
little,  from  which  he  can  derive  advantage.  Even  in  sketches 
more  defined  and  intelligible,  where  often  are  found,  combined, 
a degree  of  grace  and  sentiment,  rivalling  more  finished  pro- 
ductions, there  is  still  a freedom  of  line,  and  manner,  belonging 
to  an  experienced  hand  — one  well  schooled  and  practised  in 

design  — and  evidence  of  disregard  to  mere  manner,  or  method  of  expression,  which  none  but  a 
master  in  art  dare  attempt.  This  very  freedom,  and  capacity  of  reaching,  at  once,  the  higher 
attributes  of  art,  by  means  so  simple,  yet  certain,  is  attainable  only  by  first  learning  to  draw  with 
accuracy  and  precision ; by  a perfect  understanding  of  the  use  and  power  of  lines,  as  well  as 
practical  ability  in  their  direction.  Many  a mere  beginner  could  produce  more  regular 
lines,  and,  in  the  common  perversion  of  the  term,  a more  “ finished”  drawing,  than  that  of  a 
Mother  and  Child,  presented  on  the  next  page,  from  a pen-and-ink  sketch  by  Guercino  ; yet,  such 
a sketch  could  only  be  produced  by  one  who  could  do  more.  Its  excellence  does  not  alone  consist 
in  its  manner,  or  mechanical  execution,  which  we  might  imitate  for  ever,  without  advancing  one 
step  to  the  ability  of  originating  one  comparable  to  it,  in  point  of  grace,  character,  and  expres- 
sion, unless  we  possessed,  like  Guercino,  well-grounded  knowledge,  feeling,  and  capacity,  far 
beyond  the  mere  counterfeiting  of  another’s  hand.  With  an  understanding  of  the  principles 
of  design,  familiarity  with  nature,  and  a sense  to  appreciate  the  beautiful  5 with  the  possession 
of  that  command  of  hand,  the  importance  of  which  has  been  so  earnestly  urged  upon  the  pupil, 
and  the  means  of  its  attainment  placed  before  him  5 with  careful  observation  and  practice,  he 
will  soon  acquire  a facility  of  expressing  himself,  which,  growing  into  a habit,  will  establish  a 
manner  for  himself,  far  more  serviceable,  and  better,  than  the  imitation  of  that  of  another, 
however  excellent  or  effective  it  may  be. 

105.  Not  that  the  pupil  should  consider  the  works  of  others  unworthy  his  study  and  emu- 
lation 5 but  he  should  learn,  rather,  to  value  the  higher  attributes  of  a work  of  art,  above  the  less 

important  peculiarities  of  the  artist’s  hand,  which  are  often  the  result  of  change  of  purpose,  or 

13 


98 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


accidental  circumstances,  or  carelessness  in  the  production  of  a sketch.  Many  a beautiful  idea 
has  been  suggested  by  a few  random  lines  5 even  by  an  accidental  blot,  or  stain,  upon  the  paper, 
which  the  sensitive  eye,  and  fertile  imagination,  of  the  artist  have  detected,  and  his  ready  hand 
developed  with  a fc  v touches,  that  defy  imitation.  Often,  in  sketches,  the  artist  may  appear  to 
have  dashed  forth,  in  bold  explorations,  in  search  of  happy  combinations  of  line,  effect,  and 
expression,  upon  which  the  beginner  should  venture  with  caution,  and  never  from  mere  affectation. 
Let  him  study  the  spirit  and  motive  of  good  sketches,  whenever  he  can  meet  with  them  ; but, 
let  him  learn  to  draw,  before  he  begins  to  sketch. 


106.  While  on  the  subject  of  manner , it  may  be  expected  that  something  should  be  said 
with  reference  to  trees  and  foliage  5 but  all  the  rules  and  recipes,  that  ever  were  promulgated,  can 
not  teach  one  to  draw  the  most  simple  weed,  without  a feeling  and  capacity  for  the  imitation 
of  form.  Landscape  is  too  often  regarded  as  a sort  of  safety-valve,  to  let  off  the  exuberant 


MANNER  OR  METRO  I). 


99 


efforts  of  those  who  are  either  too 
idle,  or  indifferent,  to  endure  the 
restraint  of  study.  The  distortion 
of  a head,  or  figure,  is  apparent  to 
every  one  5 but  the  representation  of  a tree 
may  be,  in  every  way,  disproportioned  and  out 
of  character,  and  still  it  is  a tree,  and  the 
producer  of  it  at  once  an  artist.  Of  all  the 
applications  of  art  to  the  purposes  of  the 
amateur,  landscape  occupies  a deservedly  high 
place  5 and  its  study  should,  therefore,  be  be- 
gun and  prosecuted,  with  due  deference  to  its 
importance.  Let  the  learner  at  once  discard 
the  idea  that,  because  he  can  sketch  something 
to  look  like  nature,  his  work  is  done,  nor 
deprive  himself  of.  the  enjoyment  of  those 
privileges  that  belong  to  the  accomplished 
observer  of  the  beautiful  in  nature  — so  liber- 
ally diffused,  and  available  to  all.  To  do  this, 


100 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


there  is  but  one  course  to  be  followed.  Nature  beckons  to  him,  and  invitingly  spreads  forth  her 
varied  charms,  to  tempt  him  to  her  sunny  fields  — at  once  his  teacher,  and  bountiful  provider  of 
all  that  he  requires. 

107.  How  must  I draw  an  oak  — how  an  elm  — and  how  shall  I touch  a hemlock-tree  ? — are 
questions  that  too  commonly  weary  the  ear  of  the  drawing-master  with  their  repetition ; and 
his  reputation  frequently  is  endangered,  most  unjustly,  if  he  can  not  only  tell  his  pupils,  but  teach 
them  how  to  do  so,  too,  in  one  short  half  hour  ; and  yet  they  themselves,  perhaps,  do  not  know  the 
tree,  when  they  see  it  in  nature,  much  less,  when  it  is  represented  in  a drawing : and  if  they  do,  it 
is  more  by  the  shape  of  the  leaf  than  the  general  form  and  character  of  the  tree  itself.  Let  this 
sort  of  quackery  have  no  place  with  those  who  pursue  the  study  of  art  with  sincerity.  Let  them 
learn  the  first  and  leading  principles  of  Design ; let  the  eye  be  quickened  to  the  keen  perception 
and  just  consideration  of  form,  and  the  hand  ready  and  certain  in  its  delineation ; and  then  let 
them  go  forth,  sketch-book  in  hand,  into  the  fair  fields  that  nature  has  provided,  in  her  Free 
School  of  Art.  One  group  of  weeds,  by  the  road-side,  or  along  the  murmuring  brook,  will  teach 


them  more  wholesome  lessons  of  the  u way  to  draw  them,”  than  all  the  books  that  ever  were 
published  on  the  subject.  Then,  and  not  till  then,  will  the  drawings  and  majmer  of  others,  in 
the  delineation  of  such  objects,  be  intelligible  and  useful  to  them  : for,  how  can  they  judge  of  the 
truth  of  its  representation,  when  they  know  nothing  of  the  reality.  Drawing  is  not  to  be  taught 
like  tambour-stitch  and  crotchet. 


;oi 


102 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING, 


108.  It  is  not  only  difficult,  but  impossible,  to  adapt  any  work  of  instruction  to  the  various 
capacities  and  character  of  mind,  upon  which  it  is  to  operate,  or,  to  devise  any  one  system  that 
will  be  applicable  to  every  individual  case  j but,  with  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment,  on  the 
part  of  teachers  and  pupils,  the  elementary  principles,  which  it  has  been  the  object  of  this  work 
to  present,  in  as  plain  and  intelligible  a manner  as  possible,  will  be  found  available  to  all.  Children, 
and  those  who  do  not  show  aptness  in  comprehending  the  principles,  and  their  practical  applica- 
tion, should  dwell  on  each  lesson,  and  repeat  it  over  and  over  again  — always  with  care.  One 
step,  surely  made,  if  it  be  but  the  drawing  of  a simple  straight  line,  or  curve,  the  next  is  half 
accomplished ; and  thus,  progressively,  should  they  be  advanced.  It  is  based  upon  no  fanciful 
theory,  that  “ any  one  who  can  learn  to  write  can  learn  to  draw  but  a truism,  which  the  author 
pledges  himself  to  establish,  beyond  a question,  if  aided  by  the  intelligence  and  co-operation  of 
American  teachers,  and  those  who  have  charge  of  the  education  of  youth.  It  is  within  the 
means  and  capacity  of  all  teachers,  to  instruct  their  pupils  in  the  rudiments  of  drawing  ,•  and 
that,  too,  by  an  actual  saving  of  labor  to  themselves,  if  the  improvement  of  those  under  their 
charge  has  aught  to  do  in  the  account.  The  least-pretending  country  schoolmaster  would  indig- 
nantly repel  the  insinuation  that  he  did  not  know  how  himself,  and  could  not  teach  his  boys  and 
girls,  to  write  — and  owns,  without  the  slightest  idea  of  deteriorating  from  his  capacity  as  a 
public  instructor,  that  he  knows  nothing  of  drawing ; and  yet,  in  his  daily  practice,  he  blindly 
teaches  to  draw,  every  time  he  sets  a copy,  and  criticises  the  imitations  thereof  made  by  his 
scholars. 

109.  The  author  may  be  here  pardoned  a personal  indulgence,  in  reverting  to  his  own  school- 
boy days,  if  on  no  other  score  than  that  of  expressing  his  grateful  recollection  of  his  writing- 
master.  In  the  thoughtlessness  of  boyhood,  and  the  unconsciousness  of  the  extent  of  the  benefit 
then  bestowed,  his  very  name  has  been  obliterated  from  his  memory  5 but  too  often,  in  later  years, 
has  the  influence  of  his  lessons  been  felt  to  suffer  his  grateful  recollection  to  pass  away.  He  came 
to  our  village-school,  unheralded  and  unknown  — if  I mistake  not,  on  foot  — a silent,  sad,  and  unas- 
suming man,  who,  for  a pittance,  offered  to  instruct  a class  in  writing.  He  showed  no  unmeaning, 
flourished  specimens,  but  wrote  a line  upon  our  teacher’s  desk,  with  an  ease,  and  grace,  and 
precision,  that  gained  his  engagement.  Whether  it  was  his  gentleness  of  manners,  his  kind 
encouragement,  the  winning  of  his  ways,  or  the  magic  influence  of  his  system  of  instruction, 
writing  became  at  once  a delight,  rather  than  a task  5 for  we  all  set  to  work,  with  an  earnestness 
that  made  us  forgetful  of  the  hour  of  playtime  and  recreation.  He  stayed  but  a few  weeks  and 
went  as  he  came,  bearing  with  him  many  a boy’s  heartfelt  blessing  and  farewell.  He  could 


WRITING,  IN  CONNEXION  WITH  DRAWING. 


103 


not  draw,  perhaps,  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  ; and  yet  he  taught,  by  a method 
well  worth  the  imitation  of  teachers,  the  first  principles  of  drawing : and  thus  it  was : — 

110.  In  the  first  place,  the  old-fashioned  “copper-plates,”  over  which  we  had  toiled  so  long, 
in  comparatively  profitless  labor,  were  laid  aside,  and  each  scholar  was  supplied  with  a quire  of 
fair,  smooth  letter-paper;  for  it  was  a maxim  with  him,  that  “young  workmen  should  have  good 
tools.”  We  were  then  taught  to  rule  it  in  lines,  and  only  on  one  side,  thus:  — 


Those  that  were  awkward  were  helped  by  him.  Neatness  was  strongly  inculcated,  and  consid- 
ered as  essential  — a blot  or  a smudge,  and  all  was  to  be  done  over  again;  and  thus  the  habit 
was,  from  necessity,  soon  acquired  and  maintained.  Soiled,  inky  fingers,  and  blotted  copy-books, 
were  seen  no  more ; and,  what  can  not  be  said  of  all  school-boys,  we  went  to  our  work  with  clean 
hands,  at  least.  Steel-pens  were  not  then  in  use ; and  he  taught  us  to  trim  our  goose-quill,  to 
regulate  its  nib  to  large  hand  and  small,  how  to  prevent  its  tricks  of  spattering  and  blotting, 
exactly  how  far  to  dip  it  in  the  ink,  and  how  carefully  to  lay  it  aside,  well  wiped,  for  another  day. 
He  had  no  arbitrary  method  of  holding  the  pen,  as  if  all  hands,  and  the  length  and  action  of  all 
fingers,  were  alike,  but  simply  showed  us  what  we  had  to  do,  and  left  to  the  natural  action  of  the 
hand  to  find  its  most  easy  command  of  the  pen. 

The  paper  ruled  in  pencil,  we  began  our  first  lesson  — 
to  draw  a straight  line,  with  a firm,  decided  hand  : first,  the 
distance  between  two,  then  three,  and  four  ruled  lines; 


104 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING 


observing  to  press  the  pen  at  top  and  bottom,  so  as  to  expand  the  nib,  and  produce  the  proper 
degree  of  angularity  in  the  terminations ; holding  it  with  even  pressure,  to  maintain  an  equal  width 
throughout  the  line.  It  was  a difficult,  and  seemed  almost  a hopeless  effort,  at  first  ; but  after  a 
page  or  two,  carefully  practised,  there  was  not  a boy  in  school  who  could  not  do  it  — and  well. 
Then  the  lines  were  gradually  extended  to  eight  spaces. 

We  had  not  reached  the  end  of  this  lesson,  before  each  one 
assumed,  unconsciously,  an  easy  manner  of  holding  the  pen ; 
for,  as  the  lines  were  to  be  continued  without  stopping,  or 
removing  the  pen  from  the  paper,  the  whole  hand  and  wrist 
were  necessarily  brought  into  action  ; and  a habit,  almost 
universal  with  beginners,  of  writing  by  the  action  of  the  fingers  alone,  was  at  once  corrected. 

Next  came  the  curves,  and  the  nature  of  their  form  and  delineation 
was  explained  : the  gradual  expansion  of  the  line,  as  it  approached  and 
receded  from  the  middle  space,  in  which  it  became  a straight  line; 
the  easy  flow  of  the  curve  at  top  and  bottom,  and  its  exact  repetition.  He  would  examine,  with 
a critical  eye,  our  failures,  show  us  every  minute  defect,  equally  dilate  upon  the  slightest  approach 
to  success,  and  cheer,  with  words  of  encouragement,  the  most  awkward. 

We  were  now  practised  in  the  combinations;  then  a perfect  letter 
was  achieved ; and,  soon,  such  ms  and  ns  were  made  as  never  before 
had  been  seen  upon  our  writing-bench. 


Something  had  been  done ; and  we  were  indulged  with  a page  or  two  of  practice,  before 


At  the  first  trial  of  the  tail  of  a g,  a serious  difficulty  was  encountered,  especially  by  those  who 
had  not  divested  themselves  of  the  old  habit  of  dependence  on  the  motion  of  the  fingers  alone : 


WRITING.  IN  CONNEXION  WITH  DRAWING. 


105 


for,  now  the  whole  hand,  wrist,  and  arm,  were  brought  into  action  $ but  two  or  three  copies, 


practised  with  care,  and  under  his  critical  direction, 


soon  enabled  us,  in  a great  measure,  to  surmount  it  ; and  then  we  were  well  prepared 


steady  movement  of  the  hand  5 its  peculiarity  of  form  to  be  studied,  as  well  as  the  application 
of  portions  of  each  letter  to  the  formation  of  others.  We  were  taught,  first,  to  know  how  each 
letter  should  be  made  5 and  then  practised  to  make  it,  by  beginning  with  its  parts,  and  combining 
them  into  a whole.  From  the  most  simple,  we  were  gradually  advanced  to  the  most  difficult. 
Nothing  was  passed  over,  or  slighted ; and  when  the  small  alphabet  was  mastered,  we  were 
considered  prepared  for  capitals  and  small  hand. 

The  instructions  we  received,  with  regard  to  the  formation  of  capital  letters,  were  strictly 
drawing  them.  Every  line  and  curve  was  to  be  studied,  and  their  application  and  combination 
understood,  and  practically  exemplified,  upon  like  principles. 


14 


106 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


The  ruled  paper  was  now  laid  aside,  and  we  began  our  lessons  in  small-hand.  I well 
remember  the  feeling  of  helplessness  with  which  I regarded  the  fair,  unruled  sheet  before  me  — 
like  a child  standing  alone,  for  the  first  time,  and  venturing  on  its  first  step.  The  trial  came  — it 
was  to  draw  right  lines  across  the  page,  without  guide  or  ruler  ; a hard  task,  that  few  were  equal 
to,  but  still  we  did  wonders.  From  straight  lines  we  progressed  to  the  connexion  of  letters;  and 


-7 

0 

7 

7 

"7 

7 

7 

' €~ 

7 

7T~ 

C 

7 

7 

7 

7 

“ ~7 

7 

77~ 

0 

7 

7 

7 

7 

c 

T 

7 

7 

7 

7 

'777  >77  >7  7 777 777  77  7 777  >77“ 

///y//s  — t/ico/t  //  ui/t //u///  — r/u//<  f/tr///  — 7727777  ma/i 


thence,  to  simple  words  and  sentences,  not  only  written  in  a straight  and  even  line,  across  the 
page,  but  repeated  others,  equidistant  from  each  other,  with  a degree  of  ease  and  accuracy  that 
would  have  done  no  discredit  to  older  hands.  If  the  men,  who  were  then  boys,  now  require 
ruled  paper,  or  write  in  random,  wandering  lines,  it  has  been  the  fault  of  after-years. 

Another  most  admirable  method,  of  exercising  the  hand,  should  not  be  forgotten.  It  was, 
to  practise  the  drawing  of  the  letters  backward ; by  which  the  faint  lines  were  necessarily 
reversed.  We  had  often  seen  such  letters  and  copies,  in  our  “copper-plates,”  but  never  imagined 
they  were  to  be  done  by  any  other  method  than  by  “ painting  them  up.” 


WRITING,  IN  CONNEXION  WITH  DRAWING 


107 


Then,  again,  we  were  made  to  draw  the  letters  with  a single  faint  line  ; a practice  well 
calculated  to  give  ease  and  delicacy  of  touch,  as  well  as  certainty  of  hand : for  he  who  depends 
upon  the  nib  of  his  pen  as  a rest,  will  never  be  able  to  obtain  command  of  it,  or  write,  or  drawr, 
with  ease  and  freedom. 

Long  after  our  writing-master  had  left  us,  and  the  fruits  of  his  instruction  were  ripened, 
under  the  care  of  others,  such  continued  to  be  sportive,  as  well  as  profitable  exercises  among 
us,  on  the  slate  and  blackboard : and  more  than  one  complaint  came  against  us,  for  our  chalk- 
and-charcoal  illustrations  on  the  neighboring  fences.  Had  there  been,  then  and  there,  one  to 
give  a proper  direction  to  this  impulse,  thus  awakened  by  the  instruction  of  our  wTriting-master, 
to  design,  more  than  one  would  now  hold  his  memory  in  grateful  recollection. 

Such  a system  of  instruction  develops  the  art  of  wrriting  \ and  such  is  the  art  of  writing,  in 
its  relation  to  the  art  of  drawing.  The  teacher,  or  pupil,  who  can,  with  his  pen,  produce  the 
most  simple  curve,  and  repeat  it  at  pleasure,  can  draw.  If  he  can  not  draw,  the  art  of  writing 
is  to  him  a mystery  as  hidden.  Let  not  the  teacher,  therefore,  who  undertakes  to  instruct  in 
writing,  say,  “ I can  not  draw.”  The  time  will  come,  when  he  will  blush  as  soon,  to  own  a want 
of  capacity  in  one  art  as  the  other. 

111.  In  schools,  where  a teacher  of  drawing  is  not  employed,  and  even  where  there  is  one, 
the  improvement  of  scholars,  in  both  writing  and  drawing,  may  be  promoted,  in  a very  great 
degree,  and  with  little  or  no  additional  labor  to  the  teacher,  by  taking  one  half,  or  even  two  thirds 
of  the  time,  usually  devoted  to  writing,  and  applying  it  to  drawing.  The  result  will  be  found  in 
no  way  to  impede  the  improvement  of  the  writing-classes  ; but,  on  the  contrarv,  greatlv  facilitate 


108 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


their  advancement  in  that  branch  of  education.*  The  copy-books,  accessory  to  this  work,  will 
here  be  found  of  much  use : for,  by  their  aid,  any  teacher  can  initiate  his  pupils  in  knowledge 
and  application  of  the  first  principles  of  drawing.  He  should  require  his  scholars  to  practise 
each  lesson  with  care  and  attention,  and  to  become  familiar,  and,  to  a certain  degree,  perfect,  in 
each,  progressively  ; and  the  beginning  once  made,  there  is  no  fear  that  either  he,  or  they, 
will  have  cause  to  regret  the  effort,  or  fail  to  prosecute  the  study  farther.  According  to  the 
advancement  of  his  pupils,  will  he  be  able  to  judge  of  their  capacity  for  higher  attempts.  In 
learning  to  draw,  as  in  the  acquirement  of  every  other  branch  of  education,  the  first  steps  are 
often  the  most  important  5 and  care,  in  the  outset,  may  save  much  disappointment,  and  insure 
success.  The  method  of  instruction  advised  for  schools,  is  equally  applicable  to  home-education, 
or  to  those  whose  more  mature  years  and  judgment  qualify  them,  in  a measure,  to  become  their 
own  teachers 

112.  The  study  of  art  is,  in  itself,  so  pleasing,  that  but  little  more  is  required  of  teachers 
than  the  initiation  of  pupils  in  its  rudiments,  upon  such  sound  principles  that  they  may  continue 
its  pursuit,  aided  only  by  observation,  reference  to  nature,  and  good  productions  of  art,  and  such 
standard  works  on  the  subject,  as  their  wants  may  require.  They  will  find,  even  before  they  have 
mastered  the  very  first  rudiments,  and  in  their  very  first  attempts  to  draw  from  nature,  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  a knowledge  of  the  first  principles  of  perspective  ; and,  if  in  earnest  in  the 
business,  they  will  not  fail  at  once  to  seek  such  knowledge : and  it  will  be  far  better  for  them  to 
supply  the  want  when  its  necessity  is  felt,  than  if  they  were  to  undertake  its  attainment  in 
advance.  Again : when  they  attempt  to  draw  the  figure,  they  will  be  made  sensible  of  the  impor- 
tance of  a certain  degree  of  knowledge  of  its  anatomical  structure  ; and  thus,  at  every  step,  no 
matter  how  far  they  may  extend  the  pursuit,  they  will  feel,  for  ever,  progressive  wants,  which  must 
be  progressively  supplied.  For  all,  however,  there  must  be  a secure  groundwork  5 and  that  is  a 
knowledge  of  the  first  principles  of  the  imitative  art.  Once  initiated,  and  made  to  feel  the 
capacity  of  art,  and  the  power  they  possess,  its  cultivation  will  not  be  a task,  but  constant  and 
increasing  delight.  This  must  be  done  by  small  beginnings,  by  securing  success,  by  not  attempting 
too  much,  by  a knowledge  and  capacity  of  its  application  to  practical  results,  gradually  acquired  — 

* The  author  has  the  gratification  of  finding  this  fact  fully  corroborated  by  the  experience  of  an  eminent  teacher  of  New  Fork, 
the  Rev.  W.  Morris,  rector  of  Trinity  school,  who,  from  actual  experiment,  has  placed  the  matter  in  a light  that  can  not  fail  to 
interest  both  parents  and  teachers.  He  divided  his  writing-class,  without  regard  to  any  superior  natural  talent,  or  aptness,  in  his 
scholars,  and  allowed  “ one  half  the  class  to  write  every  day  in  the  week,  as  hoys  usually  do  in  school,  and  the  other  half  wrote 
and  drew  on  alternate  days.  The  result  produced  an  average  of  five  to  one  good  writers,  in  favor  of  the  drawing-class.”  A 
similar  exieriment  any  teacher  can  make,  and  it  is  well  worth  the  serious  attention  of  all. 


CONCLUSION. 


10!) 


a better  and  surer  system  of  rapid  instruction  than  any  other  that  can  be  devised.  One  simple 
straight,  or  curved  line,  drawn  with  accuracy,  and  the  beginning  is  made ; and  a habit  of  obser- 
vation of  forms,  and  their  imitation,  is  induced,  which  gradually  leads  from  small  to  greater  efforts. 
Wants  are  felt  at  every  step;  and  their  supply  is  naturally  sought  by  like  means  that  have  given 
strength  to  reach  the  point  already  attained.  The  eye,  the  mind,  and  hand,  keep  pace  with  each 
other,  in  the  march  of  improvement ; and  the  increase  of  knowledge  and  capacity  impels  to  higher 
attainments  and  insures  results,  which  never  can  be  reached  by  a course  of  superficial  instruction, 
having  only  for  its  object  the  production  of  a drawing  or  picture  — the  joint  labor  of  master  and 
scholar  — of  which  the  former  has,  too  often,  far  more  than  his  share. 

113.  What  can  a pupil  have  learned,  to  advantage,  who  can  do  nothing  without  his  drawing- 
master  by  his  side  ? And  to  what  useful  or  satisfactory  purpose  can  the  little  superficial  knowl- 
edge thus  acquired  in  his  lesson,  be  applied  in  after-life  ? It  has  been  by  such  systems  of  super- 
ficial instruction,  that  drawing  has  been  abused,  and  reduced  in  its  consideration  as  a useful  art ; 
and,  to  say  the  truth,  it  is  useless  enough,  when  thus  perverted  from  its  high  and  valuable  purposes. 
Such  systems  are  worse  than  useless : they  are  evils,  which  go  far  to  retard  the  cultivation  of 
true  taste,  not  only  in  art  itself,  but  all  those  refinements  which  centre  in  it ; and  the  sooner  a 
reformation  in  our  schools  is  begun,  the  sooner  will  a more  healthful  influence  be  seen  and  felt 
in  society.  We  are  not  to  look  solely  to  teachers,  for  a remedy  of  the  evil : for,  unfortunately  in 
this,  as  in  everything  else,  the  market  will  be,  necessarily,  supplied  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
demand ; and,  unless  parents  and  pupils  can  be  made  sensible  of  the  importance  of  a proper 
system  of  instruction,  and  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  therefrom,  teachers  battle  against 
windmills,  and  their  most  earnest  and  conscientious  exertions  will  be  in  vain,  and  fruitless  of 
satisfaction  or  reward.  The  work  of  reformation  is  no  untried  experiment.  Abroad,  the 
diffusion  of  judicious  education  in  design,  largely  and  freely  distributed  throughout  all  classes  of 
society,  has  proved,  not  only  how  easily  it  can  be  done,  but  with  what  favorable  results ; and  it  is 
time  an  effort  should  be  made  in  America,  at  least  to  keep  pace  with,  if  not  to  lead,  in  the  march 
of  the  onward  century  in  which  we  live.  Surely,  we  will  not  admit  the  existence  of  national 
incapacity.  From  a land  abounding  with  the  beautiful ; with  genius,  wealth,  enterprise,  and 
freedom,  much  may  be  expected,  and  much  may  be  achieved  : and  should  be,  in  this,  as  in  all  that 
tends  to  elevate  its  national  character  and  importance. 

114.  Whatever  the  experience  of  the  world  may  be,  with  regard  to  the  necessity  of  coercion, 
and  of  forcing  the  youthful  mind,  by  physical  persecution,  into  the  reception  of  knowledge,  that 


0 


110 


11  U I)  L M ENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


of  art  may  safely  claim  to  be  an  exception.  All  the  powers  of  the  earth  can  not  force  a love  for 
art  upon  the  mind,  any  more  than  they  can  “ make  the  bird  sing  5”  and  without  a love  for  it,  its 
pursuit  is  hopeless.  With  some,  the  first  impulses  of  their  childhood  have  given  evidence  of  its 
existence 5 with  others,  it  has  been  developed  by  accidental  associations,  or  other  causes  5 and, 
with  many,  it  has  been  buried  for  ever,  for  want  of  proper  cultivation.  Care  should  be  taken, 
therefore,  to  temper  the  course  of  study,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  inclinations,  as  well  as  capacity, 
of  the  pupil  5 who,  it  often  happens,  when  a difficult  lesson  is  placed  before  him,  or  failure  has 
been  the  result  of  his  labor,  either  by  attempting  too  much,  or  for  want  of  proper  preparatory 
knowledge,  desires  to  try  something  less  difficult  — and  he  should  be  indulged:  for  it  is  far  safer 
for  him  to  retrace  his  steps,  than  advance  too  rapidly.  If,  in  its  application  to  other  branches  of 
education,  the  operation  of  such  a system  of  instruction,  so  forcibly  exemplified  in  the  study  of 
art,  were  more  strongly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  teachers ; if  the  tree  of  knowledge  were 
planted  in  more  pleasant  places,  and  the  pathways  to  it  divested  of  many  of  the  thorns  that 
lacerate  the  youthful  mind  and  body,  as  both  are  driven  forward,  by  which  the  learner  is  made, 
too  often,  to  despise  the  end  for  which  he  labors,  as  heartily  as  the  means  of  its  attainment  are 
hateful  to  him,  blue-Monday  would  soon  be  stricken  from  the  school-boy’s  calendar. 

115.  We  know  that,  in  the  pursuit  of  art,  if  properly  directed,  there  is  an  attendant  enjoy- 
ment, constant  and  enduring,  as  boundless  in  its  resources.  We  know  that  men  have  lived 
through  almost  a century  of  ardent  devotion  to  it,  and  died  still  true  to  their  first  love  5 their 
lives  presenting  one  continued,  unwearied  and  progressive  attachment  to  its  cultivation.  If  the 
world  but  knew  the  enjoyments  of  the  devoted  follower  of  art,  there  would  be  more  eager- 
ness of  desire  to  share  them  with  him.  To  him — 


“ No  rock  is  barren,  and  no  wild  is  waste  ; 

No  shape  uncouth,  or  savage,  but  in  place, 

Excites  an  interest,  or  assumes  a grace. 

* * * * * 

The  dome-crown’d  city,  or  the  cottage  plain, 

The  rough  cragg’d  mountain,  or  tumultuous  main  ; 
The  temple  rich  in  trophied  pride  array’d, 

Or  mould’ring  in  the  melancholy  shade  ; 

The  spoils  of  tempest,  or  the  wrecks  of  time, 

The  earth  abundant,  or  the  heaven  sublime  : 

All,  to  the  Painter,  purest  joys  impart, 

Delight  his  eye,  and  stimulate  his  Art.” 


CONCLUSION. 


Ill 


The  most  fruitful  source  of  regret,  and  almost  the  only  alloy  to  the  enjoyments  of  the  true 
artist,  is  the  consciousness  of  want  of  power  to  reach  that  remote  perfection,  which  ever  recedes, 
as  his  strengthened  perception  capacitates  him  to  follow  it  as  his  guiding-star : which  shone  as 

brightly,  to  the  young  imagination  of  Michael 
Angelo,  and  doubtless  seemed  nearer  to  him, 
in  the  days  of  his  boyish  efforts,  than  when, 
an  old  man,  he  sat  musing,  alone,  among  the 
ruins  of  the  Coliseum,  and  replied  to  the 
Cardinal  Farnese,  who  expressed  surprise  to 
find  him  there : u I yet  go  to  school,  that  I 
may  learn  something.”  Then  he  had  made 
his  name  famous  throughout  the  world. 
Within  sight,  the  towering  dome  of  St.  Pe- 
ter’s stood  forth  against  the  bright  sky  of  his 
native  Italy,  the  imperishable  monument  of 
his  genius.  The  frescoes  of  the  Sistine  chapel, 
the  wonder  and  admiration  of  that  and  suc- 
ceeding ages,  had  been  achieved.  Almost  at 
the  close  of  a lengthened  life,  not  unnnxed 
with  many  trials  and  disappointments,  still  the 
love  and  devotion  to  his  art  burned  as  warm 
within  him,  as  when,  buoyant  with  youthful  hope  and  energy,  he  left  his  parental  home,  at  Caprese, 
to  enter  the  school  of  Gherlandaio  — to  learn  to  draw.  It  was  this  that  had  sustained  him,  and 
made  him  what  he  was  5 and,  it  must  be  thus  that  excellence  in  art  is  to  be  wooed  and  won.  It  is 
this  that  must  be  cultivated,  and  kept  alive  for  ever,  in  its  pursuit:  and  it  can  be  done  — nay, 
more  — even  where  its  existence  may  appear  to  be  doubtful,  and  almost  hopeless,  it  may  be 
developed  by  proper  culture.  It  is  an  attribute  bestowed  on  all,  in  degrees  of  capacity  for  its 
cultivation,  as  in  all  other  gifts  with  which  the  Creator  has  endowed  the  perfection  of  his  works, 
immortal  man,  and  should,  no  more  than  they,  be  neglected. 

116.  In  concluding  the  elementary  portion  of  this  work,  it  is  hoped  that  the  effort  to  place 
before  the  American  public  a popular  system  of  instruction  in  the  first  principles  of  design,  however 
incomplete  it  may  be,  may  have  a tendency,  not  only  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  subject,  but  to 
show,  at  the  same  time,  how  easy  it  is  to  learn  to  draw.  Let  those  who  desire  to  acouire  this  beau- 


RUDIMENTS  OF  DRAWING. 


1 12 

tiful  and  valuable  art,  but  give  proper  attention  to  the  principles  and  practice  recommended,  not  by 
a few  hasty  trials,  and  by  carefully  following  the  routine  of  advancement,  from  a simple  straight 
line,  to  the  point  now  reached  ; and  all  that  they  have  yet  to  do,  will  be  both  plain  and  easily 
acquired.  As  a primary  and  elementary  work  on  drawing,  our  task  is  done ; and  it  will  not 
be  in  vain,  should  it  reach,  in  a degree,  however  small,  the  wants  of  a people  always  susceptible  of 
conviction,  and  ready  to  promote  the  advancement  of  the  arts  of  refinement.  The  art  of  drawing 
claims  more  than  this : for  it  is  essential  as  a part  of  common  education.  It  belongs  to  the 
artisan,  even  more  than  those  who  live  in  the  easy  enjoyment  of  fortune : with  the  one,  it  may  be 
classed  as  a luxury,  or  source  of  recreation  5 to  the  other,  it  is  a necessity. 

Let  this  useful  and  beautiful  art,  therefore,  no  longer  be  considered  as  a mystery,  confined 
to  a gifted  few,  but  take  its  place  with  its  sister  arts,  in  our  systems  of  general  education.  The 
young  and  tender  capacity  is  early  prepared  for  it  5 its  first  impulses  are  harmonious  with  it ; 
and,  while  it  may  be  made  to  shed  gladness  and  sunshine  upon  the  hours  of  coercion  to  the 
school-bench  5 when  the  mind  is  for  ever  wandering  from  the  primer  to  the  bright  fields,  and 
scenes,  and  objects,  of  childhood’s  joys,  its  pursuit  leads  not  from,  but  in  the  direction  of,  all  other 
knowledge,  assists  in  its  acquirement,  tends  to  strengthen  the  mind,  and  purify  the  taste,  and 
bestows  a capacity  for  intellectual  pleasure,  apart  from  its  practical  utility,  that  should  give  it 
place  among  the  first  requisites  of  common,  as  well  as  of  finished  education. 


EFORE  entering  upon  the  study  of 
^Perspective,  some  degree  of  prepara- 
tory knowledge  of  the  first  principles 
of  Geometry  is  requisite,  especially  of 
such  as  relate  to  the  construction  of 
the  most  important  mathematical  fig- 
ures and  forms : in  the  acquirement  of 
which  the  student  will  necessarily  be 
made  familiar  with  the  use  of  certain 
instruments,  which  will  be  found  greatly  to  facilitate  his  practical  operations,  and,  to  which, 
although  it  may  not  be  absolutely  necessary  to  have  constant  recourse,  still,  the  surest  way  of 
learning  to  do  without  them  is  first  to  acquire  a practical  knowledge  of  their  use  and  value. 
Although,  all  the  rules  and  principles  of  Perspective  are,  in  truth,  based  upon  and  connected  with 
Geometry,  it  will  be  sufficient  that  the  artist  and  off-hand  draughtsman  should  understand  so  much 
of  that  science  as  may  be  immediately  connected  with  his  art,  without  entering  into  the  more 
laborious  investigation  of  causes  and  effects,  however  interesting  and  productive  of  mental  strength 
may  be  its  further  pursuit.  It  will,  therefore,  be  only  necessary  to  present  a short  chapter  on  this 


15 


3 13 


114 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


subject  preliminary  to  the  study  of  Perspective,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  not  have  given 
previous  attention  to  it.  Apart  from  the  intimate  connexion  which  exists  between  the  science  of 
Geometry  and  that  of  Perspective,  the  student  of  the  latter  will  reap  great  advantage,  in  the  sub- 
sequent mathematical  operations,  which  will  be  required  of  him  to  perform,  in  thus  preparing  his 
hand  for  that  precision  by  which  the  principles  of  Perspective  are  most  clearly  developed,  and 
made  intelligible.  Nor  is  its  importance  limited  as  an  accessory  to  perspective  alone,  but  extended 
to  all  branches  and  degrees  of  the  arts  of  design  — clearing  obscurity  from  the  way  to  truth,  and 
storing  the  mind  with  reliable  expedients  in  the  attainment  of  its  ends — increasing  its  creative 
strength,  and  adding  to  its  power  and  readiness  of  communicating  its  impressions.  This  is  the 
business  of  education  in  Design. 

ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY, 

NECESSARY  TO  BE  UNDERSTOOD,  PREPARATORY  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  PERSPECTIVE. 

1.  A Point,  as  geometrically  understood,  has  neither  length  nor  breadth  — parts  nor  magni- 
tude— still  it  is  necessary,  in  practical  operations,  that  it  should  be  definitely  expressed  — which 
is  most  generally  done  by  a simple  dot  (.)  — a slight  puncture  — and  often  by  a simple  intersec- 
tion ( x + ). 

2.  A Line  may  be  considered  as  an  extension  of  a point,  by  which  it  acquires  length,  without 
breadth  or  thickness.  There  are  two  kinds  — Straight  or  Right  Lines  — and  Crooked  or 
Curved  Lines. 

3.  A Straight , or  Right  Line , is  one  which  presents  the  most  direct,  and  consequently,  the 

shortest  possible  connexion  between  its  extreme  points  . • — 


4.  A Curved  Line  is  one  by  which  such  connexion  is  indirectly  attained 


5.  A Circle  is  a form  produced  by  a line,  cajled  its  Circumference , sweeping  around  a point 
called  its  Centre , and  always  at  equal  distance  from  that  centre.  The 
Circle  itself  is  too  often  confounded  with  its  Circumference , whereas, 
the  circle,  geometrically  considered,  is  the  space  limited  by  and  em- 
braced by  the  circumference.  A fence  may  be  as  properly  called  a 
field  as  a circumference  a circle. 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETR  Y. 


115 


6.  The  Radii , or  Rays , of  a circle,  are  direct  or  right  lines  drawn  from  its  centre  to  its 
circumference:  Radius , from  the  Latin,  meaning  a Ray — Radii , 

Rays.  A radius  being  equal  to  one  half  of  a diameter  of  a circle,  it 
is  evident,  as  all  the  radii  are  of  equal  length,  that  every  diameter 

\ / 

' must  necessarily  divide  the  circle  into  two  equal  parts:  — and  this  forms 

the  basis  of  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  applications  of  the  circle  to  both  practical 

geometry  and  Perspective  — previous  to  entering  upon  an  explanation  of  which  it  may  be  necessary 

to  observe  — If  a right  line  be  drawn  from  any  one  point  of  the  cir-  

i cumference  of  a circle  to  another,  without  passing  through  its  centre,  / 

[ ! 1 . : 

it  is  called  a Chord:  and  any  portion  of  a circumference  of  a circle  is 

' called  an  Arc  of  such  circle:  — and,  further,  a right  line  connecting,  or 
giving  the  measure  between  the  extreme  points,  or  terminations,  of  an  arc,  is  the  chord,  or  measure, 
of  such  arc  — such  chord,  or  measure,  having  reference  to  such  portion  of  the  whole  circumfer- 
ence as  such  arc,  and  consequently  its  chord,  may  represent.  This  leads  us  to  the  requirement 
of  an  approved  method  of  measurement  of  the  circumference  of  a circle. 


B X 


7.  The  circumference  of  the  circle  has  been  divided  into  360  Degrees , or  parts ; and  for 
purposes  of  still  nicer  calculation,  each  of  these  degrees  has  been  subdivided  into  60  Minutes  — 
each  minute  into  60  Seconds , etc.  If,  therefore,  we  take  360  degrees,  as  the  meas- 
ure of  the  circumference  of  a circle,  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  parts,  each  part 
must  necessarily  contain  90  degrees ; and  if  two  diameters  be  drawn  connecting  the 
points  of  these  divisions,  they  will  divide  the  circle  into  four  equal  parts.  Now, 
when  two  lines  meet  or  intersect  each  other,  as  in  the  case  of  these  two  diameters,  they  form  a 
space  between  them  which  is  called  an  Angle ; the  point  of  their  contact  or 
meeting  (c)  being  called  the  vertex  of  the  angle,  and  the  chord  of  an  arc 
described  from  the  vertex,  as  a centre,  drawn  between  the  points  where  this 
arc  touches,  or  cuts  the  lines  forming  the  angle,  will  be  the  measure  of  such 
angle.  Thus,  for  example,  the  chord  ( a b ) of  the  arc  ( a d b ) gives  the 
measure  of  the  angle  (b  c a)  formed  by  the  lines  a c — b c.  If,  therefore,  we  divide  a circle 
as  above  shown,  into  four  equal  parts  by  two  diameters,  they  form  at 
their  central  intersection  four  angles  of  90  degrees  each,  which  are 
called  Right  angles  ,•  half  a right  angle  being,  of  course,  45  degrees. 

An  angle  which  exceeds  90  degrees  is  termed  an  Obtuse  angle , and 
that  which  is  of  less  than  90  degrees  an  Acute  angle. 


1 1G 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


8.  To  facilitate  the  operations  of  the 
practical  geometrician,  an  instrument  for 
the  ready  measurement  and  adjustment 
of  angles,  called  a Protractor , will  be 
found  of  much  service.  It  is  often  made 
of  brass,  but  still  better,  and  far  more 
serviceable  for  the  draughtsman,  of 
transparent  horn ; which  enables  the  op- 
erator to  adjust  it  to  given  points  and 
lines  with  the  utmost  facility  and  accu- 
racy, as  well  as  to  produce,  or  reproduce, 
angles  of  any  given  extent,  or  measure,  at  will.  With  regard  to  its  application,  and  method  of 
using,  the  annexed  figure  will  sufficiently  explain,  as  well  as  admirably  exemplify,  the  principles 
involved. 


9.  Angles  formed  by  the  contact,  or  connexion,  of  two  right  lines  j - : are 

called  Rectilinear  Angles,  and  those  formed  by  curved  lines  - - Curmlinear 

Angles. 

10.  The  Line  of  the  Horizon  is  known  as  that  which  bounds  the  margin  of  the  heavens  to 

our  view,  best  and  most  geometrically  demonstrated  by  that 
which  limits  our  view  of  the  distant  ocean  ; hence,  a line 
lying  in  the  same  direction,  and  parallel  to  the  natural 

horizon,  is  called  a Horizontal  Line. 


1 1.  The  true  Vertical,  Plumb,  or  Perpendicular  Line,  is  such  as  is  described  by  a body 
falling  to  the  earth,  or  by  a string  to  which  a plummet  or  weight  may  be 
attached,  and  which  must,  necessarily,  meet  a horizontal  line  at  right  angles. 
Nevertheless,  one  line  may  be  perpendicular  to  another,  without  being  in  itself 
a natural  perpendicular,  or  vertical,  but  assuming  that  quality,  from  its  relation 
to  such  other  line.  For  example,  a b is  perpendicular  to  c d,  although  in  itself 
not  vertical,  or  perpendicular  to  the  earth  or  natural  horizon.  These  distinc- 
tions must  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  study  of  perspective. 


E L E M ENTS  O E GEO  M E T R Y.  117 

12.  As  lines  are  limited  and  defined  by  points,  so  are  figures  limited  and  defined  by  lines. 
No  less  than  three  straight  lines  can  possibly  embrace  a figure.  These 
are  called  Triangles,  having  three  sides  and  three  angles.  They  are 
of  three  kinds : i.  The  Equilateral  triangle , having  its  sides  and 
angles  equal  to  one  another,  n.  The  Isosceles  triangle , having  two 
equal  sides  and  two  equal  angles,  in.  Irregular  triangles , from  their 
having  their  sides  and  angles  irregular.  To  which  is  sometimes  added 
the  rectangular  triangle , having  one  of  its  angles  a right  angle, 
although,  strictly  speaking,  it  belongs  to  the  il  and  in.  classes. 

13.  A Square  is  a figure  having  four  equal  sides  and  angles  — all  its 
angles  being  right  angles.  A line  connecting  its  opposite  angles,  and 
dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts,  is  called  its  Diagonal. 

14.  A Rectangle  has  its  four  angles,  right  angles,  equal  to  one  another,  but  unequal 
to  the  other  two.  Like  the  square,  it  is  also  divided 
into  two  equal  parts  by  its  diagonal.  But  it  should 
be  remembered,  that,  in  operative  perspective,  the  diagonal 
of  the  rectangle  possesses  far  different,  properties  from  the 
diagonal  of  the  square,  as  will  be  hereafter  more  fully  explained. 


15.  All  figures  formed  by  angles  come  under  the  general  denomination  of  Polygons,  and 
those  of  more  regular  and  balanced  proportions  are  designated  as  follows:  — 


Pentagon  Hexagon.  Septagon  Octagon  Honagon  Decagon  Undecagon  Dodecagon,  etc 


5 Sides  6 Sides  7 Sides  8 Sides  9 Sides  10  Sides  11  Sides  12  Sides,  etc. 


16.  An  Ellipse  is  formed  by  a curved  line  embracing  a space  which  differs  from  the  circle 
m the  inequality  of  its  diameters.  It  is  commonly  called  an 
Oral , from  its  assumed  resemblance  to  the  form  of  an  egg  ; /_ 
b which,  however,  differs  from  the  true  geometrical  ellipse  — 


jjEgpy7  being  smaller  at  one  end  than  at  the  other,  and  also  in  having 
its  extreme  breadth  not  in  the  middle  $ while  the  true  ellipse 
is  equally  balanced  in  all  its  duplicate  and  relative  proportions. 


. ' 


1 18  ELEMENTS  OF  GEO  M*E  T R.  Y. 

17.  A Tangent  is  a line  touching  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  at  a point,  called  its  point  of  contact , where  it  forms  a 
right-angle  with  its  diameter. 

Properly  to  understand,  and  practically  to  apply,  the  rules  and  principles  of  perspective,  it  is 
important  that  the  student  should  not  only  be  able  to  form  all  these  figures  with  mathematical 
precision,  but  also  to  comprehend  the  principles  of  their  construction  5 in  doing  which,  he  may 
advantageously  have  recourse  to  a certain  number  of  drawing  instruments  to  facilitate  his  opera- 
tions. On  the  initial  page  of  this  chapter  are  figured  all  of  the  most  generally  useful  of  these 
instruments,  and  of  the  latest  and  most  improved  construction,  although  with  an  ordinary  ruler, 
or  straight-edge,  and  a pair  of  compasses,  an  expert  hand  may  do  very  well. 

18.  To  draw  one  line  parallel  to  another  is  most  readily  effected,  at  once,  by  the  aid 

of  the  ordinary  parallel  ruler  — an  instrument  which  will 
always  prove  of  service  to  the  draughtsman,  and  the  method 
of  its  application  is  so  simple  as  to  require  no  directions.  It 
may  be  well,  however,  to  observe,  that  where  great  accuracy 
is  required  in  the  adjustment  of  the  parallel  ruler,  or  any  other 
ruler,  or  straight  edge,  to  a given  line,  or  to  a given  point  or 
points,  the  aid  of  the  compasses  may  be,  in  many  cases,  most 
serviceable.  Thus,  by  placing  the  extended  points  of  the 
instrument  on  the  line,  and  bringing  the  ruler  gently  against 
them,  as  figured,  the  utmost  certainty  may  be  insured,  pro- 
vided the  points  of  the  instrument  be  well  adjusted,  which  should  be  always  the  case. 

To  draw  one  line  parallel  to  another  by  a method  more  strictly  geometrical — Open  the  com- 
passes to  the  distance  required  between  the  lines,  and  from 

c . .....  D 

any  point  on  the  given  line  ( a b),  (say  at  a ) • describe  as 
much  of  an  arc  as  may  be  necessary  ; then  select  another 

A- -B 

a point  on  the  given  line  (say  at  *>),  and  repeat  a like  arc. 

The  tangent  of  these  arcs  will  be  the  line  (cd)  required. 

19.  To  elevate  a perpendicular  from  a given  point  on  a given  line.  This  may  be 
done,  at  once,  by  the  application  of  an  ordinary  rectangular  triangle  of  wood,  or  even  of  card  or 
paper,  which  will  be  found  to  be  a useful  accessory  to  the  draughtsman  for  many  purposes. 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


110 


To  do  it,  however,  with  the  compasses,  is,  nevertheless,  important  to  know. 
Suppose  ab  the  given  line,  and  d the  point  on  which 
we  desire  to  erect  a perpendicular.  From  d measure 

off,  with  the  compasses,  two  points  (a c)  equidistant 

from  d.  Then,  taking  a and  c as  centres,  describe  as  much  of  the  arcs 
ad — cb  as  may  be  necessary  to  indicate  their  intersection  \ through  which 
point  a line  drawn  to  d (as  c d)  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 


V 

\ 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

20.  To  DIVIDE  A GIVEN  LINE,  BY  ANOTHER,  PERPENDICULAR  TO  IT,  and  of  COUrse 
cutting  it  at  right-angles,  is  a process  so  similar  to  the  foregoing,  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  suggest  the  continuation  of  the  arcs  to  a duplicate  intersection, 
taking  the  extreme  points  of  the  given  line  as  the  centres  for  such  arcs. 


21.  From  a given  point,  to  draw  a perpendicular  to  a given  line. — 
Let  a be  the  given  point,  and  b c the  line  to  which  it  is  desired  to  draw 
another  from  a perpendicular  to  it.  From  a,  as  a centre,  describe  an 
arc  (at),  cutting  b c in  two  points  5 then,  from  these  points  as  centres, 
describe  as  much  of  the  arcs  ca-ef  as  may  be  required  to  secure  the 
point  of  their  intersection  — whence  a line  drawn  to  the  point  a will  give 
the  perpendicular  required. 


22.  At  the  extremity  or  a line,  to  draw  another  perpendicular  to  it. — Let  a b be 
the  given  line,  and  a the  extreme  point  on  which  we  desire  to  erect  a 
perpendicular.  Place  one  point  of  the  compasses  on  a,  and  extend  the 
other  to  any  convenient  point  (say  a).  Then,  from  a,  as  a centre,  describe 
an  arc  (tea),  cutting  a b.  Draw  the  diameter  a at:  a line  drawn  from  a, 
passing  through  the  point  t,  will  be  the  perpendicular  required. 


23.  To  draw  an  equilateral  triangle. — Having  (ab)  the  required  measure  of  one  of  its 
sides,  open  the  compasses  to  its  extent,  and,  from  its  extreme  points  (a  and  b), 
as  centres,  describe  as  much  of  two  arcs  as  may  be  requisite  to  secure  the 
point  of  their  intersection  ; from  which  point  (c)  lines  drawn  (to  a and  b) 
b will  give  the  required  equilateral  triangle. 


120 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


24.  To  draw  a square.  — Having  decided  the  measure  of  one  of  its  sides  (ab),  erect  a 
perpendicular  (a  c)  on  one  of  its  extreme  points,  as  just  shown,  and  placing 
one  point  of  the  compasses  on  a,  extend  the  other  to  b.  Make  ac  equal  to  ab, 
\ and  then,  without  altering  the  expansion  of  the  instrument,  from  b and  c,  as 

centres,  describe  as  much  of  two  arcs  as  will  give  their  intersection  (d)  : the 

four  points  — abdc — connected,  will  give  the  required  square. 


25.  To  draw  a parallelogram  — the  process  is  the  same  as  for  a 
square,  with  only  this  variation,  that  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  expan- 
sion of  the  compasses  to  the  measure  of  the  longer  and  shorter  sides,  in 
ascertaining  the  point  d. 


To  draw  a circle  with  the  compasses  needs  no  direction. 


26.  To  find  the  centre  of  a circle.  — Take  any  three 
points  (as  abc)  on  its  circumference,  no  matter  where,  and  draw 
the  cords  ab-bc;  divide  these  cords  by  lines  at  right-angles, 
or  perpendicular  to  them,  as  figured,  and  the  point  of  intersection 
of  these  lines  will  give  (d)  the  required  centre  of  the  circle.  By 
a like  process,  it 
is  evident  that  a 
circle,  or  arc,  may 
be  drawn  whose 
circumference  shall  touch  any  three  given  points, 
as  shown  in  concluding  examples. 

27.  To  draw  a tangent  to  a circle  — might  appear  so  simple  as  scarcely  to  require  a rule; 
but  cases  frequently  occur  where  it  becomes  necessary  to  ascertain,  with  the  utmost  precision,  the 
exact  point  of  contact , which  may  be  thus  verified  : As  there  is  no  point  in  the  circumference 
of  a circle  that  may  not  limit  a diameter,  and  a tangent  must  touch  the  circumference  at  right- 
angles  to  a diameter,  a diameter,  meeting  a tangent  at  right-angles,  gives  its  true  point  of  con- 
tact. (17.) 

28.  From  a given  point  to  draw  two  tangents  to  a circle. — Let  a be  the  given  point,  and 
b c the  given  circle.  From  a draw  a straight  line  to  d,  the  centre  of  the  circle ; divide  the  line  ad 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


121 


into  two  equal  parts,  at  the  point  a 5 place  the  compasses 
on  a,  as  a centre,  and  extending  them  to  d,  describe 
the  arc  c d e 5 and  the  points  of  intersection  of  this 
arc,  with  the  circumference  of  the  given  circle,  will 
give  the  true  points  of  contact  of  the  required  tan- 
gents A E — AT. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  cord  at,  which  is 
the  measure  between  the  points  of  contact  of  the 
two  tangents,  is  less  than  c a,  the  diameter  of  the 
circle  5 and  the  nearer  the  point,  whence  the  two 
tangents  are  drawn,  is  placed  with  reference  to  the 
circle,  the  greater  must  necessarily  be  the  differ- 
ence between  the  measure  of  the  cord  giving  the 
distance  between  the  points  of  contact  and  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  as  shown  in  the  tangents 
gk-9l,  drawn  from  the  point  o,  compared  with  former  example. 


29.  To  DRAW  WITHIN  A CIRCLE  AN  EQUILATERAL  TRIANGLE,  HEXAGON,  DODECAGON,  ETC. This 

operation  consists  in  a simple  division  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  given  circle  into  Three , Six,  and 
Twelve  equal  parts,  etc.  First,  therefore,  for  the 
Equilateral  Triangle , draw  a diameter  (a  a)  5 then 
from  a,  as  a centre,  describe  an  arc  (b  t>  c),  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  circle  5 and  the  points 
where  this  arc  cuts  the  circumference  of  the  given  circle,  at  b and  c,  will  give  its  required  divis- 
ion into  three  equal  parts,  and  abc,  the  equilateral  triangle  required.  To  trace  a Hexagon — the 
radius,  or  half-diameter,  will  give  the  true  measure  of  the  divisions  of  the  circumference  into  six 
parts.  For  a Dodecagon , divide  one  or  more,  if  necessary,  of  the  ascertained  sides  of  a 
hexagon,  as  figured,  etc. 

30.  To  draw  either,  or  all  of  these  figures,  as  well  as  such-like  that 

follow,  outside  of  the  circle , the  process  is  so  similar  that  it  will  be 

only  necessary  to  figure  the  Equilateral  Triangle  and  Hexagon  thus 

produced,  and  leave  the  student  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  and  practise 

his  hand  upon  such  others  as  he  may  have  occasion  to  draw ; in  doing 
16 


122 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY. 


which,  it  is  advisable  that  he  should  draw  them  much  larger  than  the  examples  here  given,  so 
that  the  slightest  deviation  from  the  utmost  accuracy  may  be  at  once  apparent.  It  is  not  enough 
that  he  should  know  how  such  figures  may  be  drawn,  but  he  should  be  able  to  produce  them 
himself  at  will. 


31.  Within  a circle  to  draw  a square,  octagon,  etc. — First  draw  a diagonal  (as  ab)j 
intersect  it  by  another  (c d)  at  right-angles  to  it,  and  the  points,  abcd, 
will  give  the  corners  of  the  square  required.  For  an  Octagon — divide 
one  of  the  sides  of  the  ascertained  square  (ac),  as  figured,  and  ae-ec 
will  give  the  measures  of  the  sides  of  the  required  octagon.  It  may  be 
here  observed,  that  one  of  the  readiest  ways  of  ascertaining  the  accuracy 
of  a square  or  rectangle  (14),  is  to  measure  its  diagonals.  If  these  are 


-E  <! 


A'\ 


found  to  be  unequal,  neither  the  square  nor  rectangle  can  be  correct. 


32.  Within  a circle  to  draw  a pentagon,  decagon,  etc. — First  divide  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  circle  into  four  equal  parts,  as  shown  in  the 
foregoing  example,  then  take  any  one  of  the  radii,  or  half- 
diameters of  the  circle,  and  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts 
(as  at  the  point  a) 5 on  this  point  (a)  place  the  compasses,  and  ; \_ / 
extending  them  to  c,  strike  the  arc  6 c c,  cutting  the  diam- 
eter a b at  c.  Then,  placing  the  compasses  on  the  point  c, 
extend  them  to  the  intersection  (e),  and  describe  the  arc  ace.  The  points,  where  this  arc  cuts 
the  circumference  of  the  given  circle,  connected  to  c,  as  figured,  will  give  two  sides  of  the 
required  pentagon  5 which  ascertained,  the  remaining  three  sides  are  easily  defined. 

A pentagon,  or  even  one  of  its  sides,  once  obtained,  the  process  of  producing  upon  its  basis  a 
Decagon , as  shown  in  the  second  example,  needs  no  further  explanation. 


33.  To  draw  an  ellipse  with  the  compasses  is  extremely  difficult,  and  the  process,  at  best, 
is  complicated,  uncertain,  and  unsatisfactory ; for,  there  are  no  portions  of  the  line  by  which  it  is 
formed  that  exactly  corresponds  to  a true  arc  of  a circle.  It  has  been  found  that  there  are  two 
points  on  the  longest  diameter  of  an  ellipse,  equidistant  from  its  extreme  points,  called  its  foci , or 
focuses , which,  if  connected  by  two  lines  meeting  at  the  circumference,  no  matter  to  what  point 
on  the  circumference  they  may  be  directed,  the  sum  of  these  two  lines  is  equal  to  the  length,  or 


123 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMET R V 
longest  diameter  of  the  ellipse. 


. c 


x\  ■\.I)  Thus  (as  first  figured),  ab-bc, 

X5  ad— dc,  and  ae— ec,  will  be 

— -Nr",  /\  . 7 2- 

c 

J 

X-7  ic-  found  severally  equal  to  the  » 

A 

/ diameter  fg.  To  ascertain 

X 

X 

these  important  points:  having 

0 

first  decided  upon  the  length  B 

and  breadth  of  the  required  ellipse,  as  ab-cd  (in  the  second  figure),  and  drawn  these  two  diam- 
eters, bisecting  each  other  at  right-angles,  take  the  measure  of  one  half  of  the  longest  diameter 
(ab)  with  the  compasses,  and  from  the  point  c,  as  a centre,  describe  an  arc  (a be).  The  points 
where  this  arc  cuts  the  diameter  ab,  will  be  those  required.  Now,  by  placing  two  pins  in  these 
points,  and  stretching  a thread  between  them,  passing  over  another  pin  at  the  point  c,  we  have,  as 

it  were,  a moveable  line,  equal  to  the  length  of  a b,  which  will 
accurately  guide  a pencil  in  describing  the  required  ellipse 
(as  figured  in  the  third  example).  Or,  we  may  regulate  the 
length  of  the  string  at  once,  by  the  required  length  of  the 
ellipse,  and,  by  doubling  it,  get  the  position  of  the  required 
points  on  the  long  diameter,  as  well  as  making  it  serve  in  the 
after  process.  Ten  minutes’  practice  will  make  the  operation 
familiar  to  the  draughtsman. 


34.  It  should  not  be  understood  that  the  methods  here  given  are  to  be  considered  so  far 
arbitrary  as  to  exclude  others  in  common  use,  that  may  be  equally  as  efficient,  and  the  student 
will  doubtless  often  have  occasion  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  in  finding  ready  expedients,  in  the 
course  of  his  practice,  and  in  none  more  so  than  in  supplying  the  place  of  instruments.  It  is 
well  enough,  when  practicable,  to  have  all  such  facilities  ; but  it  is  equally  well  to  know  how  to 
do  without  them,  especially  for  the  off-hand  draughtsman,  who  can  not  always  have  his  magazine 
of  tools  by  him,  and  who  often  finds  in  a stout  piece  of  paper  all  he  absolutely  needs  for  the  spon- 
taneous manufacture  of  such  aids  as  he  may  require  at  the  moment,  and  thus  he  sets  to  work. 

35.  First,  for  his  Straight-edge , or  Ruler.  If  he  does  not  find  the  edge  of  his  paper  suffi- 
ciently accurate,  he  folds  it  neatly  over,  runs  his  thumb-nail  along  the  crease  to  give  it  sharpness 
and  firmness,  and  has,  at  once,  not  only  the  ruler  he  requires,  but,  by  folding,  refolding,  and  a little 
dexterous  use  of  his  penknife,  soon  learns  the  value  of  his  expedients,  and,  in  a measure,  to  do 


124 


ELEMENTS  OF  GEO  M E T R Y. 


E 

A 

G’W.llHhWI 1 

D F 

c- 

without  his  case  of  instruments.  If,  for  instance,  he  requires  a Square  or 
Right-angle  (19) : Having  secured  his  straight-edge,  a b,  he  next  folds  his 
strip  of  paper  neatly  over,  so  as  to  double  it  evenly,  and  in  the  crease  (c  d) 
thus  produced,  he  has  a line  (cd)  perpendicular  to  ab,  and  consequently 
two  right-angles  (acd-icb),  He  now  makes  another  fold  in  his  paper, 
by  bringing  the  edge  (e d)  evenly  on  to  d c,  by  which  he  gets  (in  gcd) 
an  accurate  rectangular  triangle  — having  one  right-angle  formed  by  the 
edges  gcd,  and  two  half  right-angles  formed  by  gdc  and  dgc|  and  with 
this  simple  piece  of  paper,  almost  every  rule  of  practical  perspective  may  be  worked  out.  On  its 
edges  he  may  mark  his  measurements,  and  by  its  folds  he  can  define  his  lines  and  angles,  not, 
perhaps,  so  readily  as  with  the  scale  and  compasses,  but  still  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  ordinary 
purposes. 


36.  Many  a one  who  has  been  accustomed  to  rely  entirely  upon  his  instruments,  has  found 

himself  in  difficulty  to  draw  a circle,  or  describe  an  arc,  for  want 
of  his  compasses,  when  a bit  of  thread  would  serve  as  well,  and 
in  many  cases,  (especially  when  used  on  a picture,)  even  better — 
where  the  finger  may  be  made  to  serve  instead  of  a drawing  pin  or 
point.  For  a like  purpose,  recourse  may  be  had,  also,  to  a slip  of 
stout  paper,  or  card,  with  this  advantage,  that  it  is  less  likely  to 
stretch  than  the  thread  $ and,  moreover,  when  circles  or  arcs  of  dif- 
ferent radii  have  to  be  often  repeated,  the  holes  (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,  as  figured) 
- in  which  the  pencil-point  is  to  be  inserted,  render  such  repetition 
more  easy. 

After  all,  however,  it  must  be  admitted,  that,  to  be  capable  of  taking  advantage  of  such  expe- 
dients, the  draughtsman  should  first  know  the  methods  of  construction  of  geometrical  forms  by 
means  of  the  instruments  which  experience  has  required  and  approved  5 and  not  merely  for  the 
facilities  they  afford,  but  the  elucidation  of  the  principles  of  construction  which  are  thus  made 
more  clearly  evident  and  impressive. 


CHAPTER  VI 


PERSPECTIVE— ITS  PRINCIPLES,  RULES,  AND  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION. 


ERSPECTIVE  is  an  art  which  de- 
velops the  principles,  and  fixes,  by  established 
and  certain  rules,  the  practical  methods 
of  representation  of  that  diminution  of  ob- 
jects to  the  eye,  in  proportion  as  they  are  more  or 
less  remote  from  the  observer,  which  is  so  evident 
to  all — an  art,  without  which  the  draughtsman  must 
for  ever  wander  in  uncertainty  and  error,  while  in 
its  knowledge  he  secures  a faithful  and  unerring 
guide.  To  all,  whose  occupations  may  be  in  any 
way  connected  with  design,  it  is  as  important  an  auxiliary  as  to  the  artist  it  is  indispensable. 
Apart  from  its  importance  in  a practical  view,  its  knowledge  may  justly  be  regarded  as  worthy 

of  high  consideration  in  the  purposes  of  general  education ; for,  surely,  the  design  of  education 

125 


L. 


PE  RS P ECTI V E 


should  extend  to  all  that  tends  to  the  elucidation  and  perception  of  truth,  and  that  qualifies  the 
senses  for  its  faithful  impression  on  the  mind. 

37.  Perspective  may  be  considered  as  a Science  and  as  an  Art : as  a science,  in  the  investi- 
gation of  the  principles  upon  which  is  based  its  theory  — as  an  art,  in  the  mechanical  or  mathe- 
matical operations,  by  which  we  reach  the  truthful  representation  of  any  object,  or  objects,  we 
desire,  in  any  position,  or  at  any  distance  from  the  observer,  or  from  one  another,  at  which  such 
may  be  visible  to  the  eye. 

38.  Perspective  admits  of  yet  another  division,  viz. : Aerial  and  Linear.  Aerial  perspective 
has  reference,  more  particularly,  to  those  peculiar  atmospheric  and  other  influences,  by  which 
objects,  more  or  less  remote,  are  affected  in  color,  light,  shadow,  and  gradation  of  tints,  according 
to  their  distances  or  relative  position ; the  rules  for  which  are  best  acquired  by  close  observation 
and  study  of  nature,  less  reducible  to  systematic  methods,  and  to  the  beginner  of  less  practical 
importance,  than  linear  perspective,  a knowledge  of  which  forms  the  best  basis  for  its  study.  In 
its  place  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  aerial  perspective  ; our  business,  at 
present,  with  the  art,  is  more  directly  as  a linear  operation.  First,  therefore,  should  the  pupil 
learn  to  look  at  nature  with  an  eye  capable  of  the  comprehension  of  the  principles  of  the  art 
therein  so  beautifully  and  clearly  developed;  and,  next  to  the  application  of  these  principles  to 
practical  results,  by  which  the  representation  may  most  nearly  approximate  to  the  truth  of  the 
reality.  In  all  this  there  lies  no  mystery.  The  precepts  and  principles  of  the  art  are  few  and 
simple; although  capable  of  endless  elaboration  and  application,  based  in  truth,  they  never  vary 
from  it.  If  the  learner  will  go  to  the  work  in  the  same  spirit  which  has  been  required  of  him  in 
all  that  he  has  thus  far  acquired  — when  he  can  understanding^  place  a single  point  or  line  in 
perspective,  with  a perfect  knowledge  of  the  why-and- wherefore  of  the  operation — he  is  safely  in 
the  way  to  pursue  the  more  elaborate  and  various  applications  of  the  art  with  certainty,  and  the 
task  may  be  thus  overcome  at  the  outset. 

39.  As  preparation  for  the  course  that  lies  before  us,  let  us  consider  the  few  technicalities  that 
have  been  assigned  to  the  art ; for  of  these,  few  as  they  may  be,  more  is  required  than  mere 
familiarity  with  their  names.  If  we  dwell  more  on  this  subject  than  may  be  deemed  necessary 
by  those  already  familiar  with  the  art,  again  let  such  be  reminded,  that  our  ambition  reaches  not 
to  the  teaching  of  the  learned,  but  our  highest  aim  is  to  make  plain  and  simple  the  first  steps  of 
knowledge  to  the  unlearned  ; and,  reverting  to  our  own  experience,  we  are  not  ashamed  to  confess 


PERSPECTIVE. 


127 


how  long,  tedious,  and  dark,  were  the  labors  of  our  beginning,  through  volumes  of  abstruse  dia- 
grams and  mathematical  operations,  for  want  of  clearer  light  and  more  practical  exemplification 
at  the  outset.  Nor  have  these  deficiences,  not  to  say  errors  of  the  books,  been  confined  in  their 
operation  to  our  own  experience,  but  generally  confessed.  44  After  having  studied  Perspective  at 
Rome,  under  an  excellent  professor  of  mathematics,  and  after  having  filled  more  than  five  hundred 
pages,  in  folio,  with  drawings  and  figures  in  perspective,”  says  Valenciennes,  an  eminent  Frencn 
artist,  and  author  of  one  of  the  best  works  extant  on  the  subject  of  Perspective,  44  I may  have 
been  allowed  to  have  considered  myself  thoroughly  proficient  in  that  science.  But,  on  my  arrival 
in  Paris,  having  shown  my  work  to  my  friend  Joseph  Vernet  (the  celebrated  landscape  painter) — 
4 1 see  very  clearly,’  said  he,  4 that  you  have  learned  perspective,  but  I also  see  as  well  that  you 
do  not  understand  it.  Be  not  alarmed,’  he  continued,  seeing  my  surprise  ; 4 you  know  enough 
that  I can  explain  it  to  you  in  a single  lesson,’  and  this  he  did.”  — But  back  to  ourselves,  and  let 
us  not  become  involved  in  geometrical  labors  until  we  can  comprehend  the  end  to  which  they  may 
conduct  us.  Let  us  look  to  nature  for  our  first  lessons,  and  evidences  of  the  principles  of  the  art, 
and  then  to  the  books  to  teach  us  the  means  of  their  practical  application  in  our  representations. 


40.  When  the  eye  is  directed  to  any  view  or  scene  in 
nature,  it  embraces  no  more  than  most  agreeably  fills  its  power 
of  vision.  This  is  the  Picture  impressed  on  the  mind  through 
the  organ  of  sight.  It  is  the  business  of  the  art  of  perspective 
truthfully  to  represent  this  picture  ; and,  even  if  it  be  an  ideal 
creation,  the  rules  and  principles  that  govern  its  production 
are  still  the  same.  Now,  as  to  the  true  form  of  this  picture,  it 
would  most  naturally  be  embraced  by  a circular  limit,  or  frame, 
having,  of  course,  its  Centre  as  its  Point  or  Sight  ; and  in 


128 


PERSPECTIVE. 


whatever  direction  the  eye  may  be  turned,  this  circular  picture  will  be  presented,  its  centre,  or 
point  of  sight , naturally  moving  with  it.  But  custom,  and  other  considerations  not  necessary  to 
dwell  upon  at  this  time,  have  given  more  generally  acceptable  forms  to  pictures,  such  as  the 
square , the  parallelogram , the  ellipse , etc.  Whatever  be  the  form  of  the  artificial , it  must  still 
be  considered  as  but  a portion  of  the  natural  picture,  which  distinction  the  examples  just  given 
will  more  fully  explain.  It  is  important  that  this  distinction  should  be  impressed  upon  the  mind 
of  the  student  of  perspective  5 for,  perspectively  considered,  the  point  of  sight  must  in  all  cases 
be  in  the  centre  of  the  picture , although  it  does  not  follow  that  it  should  be  so  in  regard  to  such 
portion  thereof  as  we  may  desire  to  embrace  within  the  limit  or  frame  to  which  we  prescribe 
ourselves  in  our  graphic  representation.  Still,  however,  this  privilege  which  we  assume  should  be 
kept  within  the  limits  of  propriety  ; and  we  certainly  exceed  them  when  we  carry  our  point  of 
sight  out  of  the  picture , as  we  more  closely  approach  them  by  placing  it  near  its  centre.  To  see 
a view  or  object,  the  eye  must  be  directed  to  it : if  so,  its  point  of  sight  must  be  upon  it  5 and  Art 
must  recognise  the  laws  of  Nature  to  harmonize  with  her  in  her  impressions  on  the  senses  and 
thence  to  the  mind. 


41.  Referring  to  the  example  on  the  next  page  — Let  us  suppose  a square  (aceg)  described 
upon  a table,  or  board,  placed  in  a perfectly  level  or  horizontal  position,  and  that  eight  halls  of 
equal  size  (abcdefgh)  be  placed  upon  its  four  corners  and  divisions,  as  indicated  — and  let  us, 
for  the  sake  of  elucidating  the  principles  involved  more  clearly,  imagine  these  balls  to  be  trans- 
parent. If  the  eye  were  placed  at  a point,  on  a level  with  the  centre  of  these  balls  (as  at  m),  so 
that  the  centre  (b)  of  the  ball  b would  exactly  cover  the  centre  (f)  of  the  ball  f,  as  indicated  by 

the  line  Mbf,  the  several  balls  would  appear  in  their 
j relative  positions  and  proportions  compared  with  the 
three  (a  b c)  nearest  to  the  eye,  as  thus  exemplified ; 
t>  being  the  point  of  sight , and  bm  the  distance  of  view  — the  ball  f being  covered  by  the  ball  b, 
and  only  the  balls  abc  exhibiting  their  entire  outline,  or  circumference — the  imaginary  line  passing 
through  their  centres  expressing  the  true  and  natural  Line  or  the  Horizon  5 that  is,  a line  on  a 
level  with  the  eye  of  the  observer,  which  must  necessarily  pass  through  the  point  of  sight.  Now, 




N\  centres  of  these  balls, 

a 

‘ir" 

■|  

b 



7'  ~~  they  will  evidently  give 

the  points  (abcdefgh) 

which  correspond,  exactly  to  the  corners  and  divisions  of  the  original  square  in  their  true  per- 


PERSPECTIVE. 


129 


spective  position ; and  consequently  a c e g gives  the 
true  perspective  representation  of  such  square — the 
lines,  or  sides  (ce  — ag),  terminating,  if  continued  to 
an  intersection  of  each  other,  in  the  centre  of  the 
ball  b,  as  it  appears  in  the  perspective  picture  — 
which  point  corresponds  to  the  point  i,  the  point  of 
sight,  as  just  shown  $ — the  sides  (ac-eg)  of  the  square 
being  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  horizon  (k).  Hence 
it  is  evident,  that  — All  lines  running  parallel  with 
an  imaginary  line  drawn , from  the  eye  of  the 
observer  to  the  point  of  sight , in  the  perspective 
picture , terminate  in  that  point  $ and  farther  that — 
all  lines  at  right-angles  to  such  imaginary  line 
must  be  parallel  to  the  Line  of  the  Horizon. 

Having  now  shown  the  truth  of  the  perspective 
production  of  the  original  square,  upon  which  we 
arranged  these  balls,  as  well  as  the  diminution  of  the 
five  balls  depoh,  compared  with  a b c,  which  we  have 
represented  of  the  size  of  the  original  scale  — as  rest- 
ing on  the  front  line  of  the  square,  which  corresponds 
with  the  Base  or  Ground  Line  of  the  perspective 
picture.  We  are  led  at  once,  while  these  diagrams 
are  before  us,  to  the  consideration  of  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  exemplifications  of  the  accuracy  of  the  art, 
and  its  application  to  practical  results.  If  we  extend 
the  line  of  the  horizon  on  either  side  of  our  perspec- 
tive picture,  and  draw  the  diagonals  of  the  square  thus  perspectively  represented  (as  in  second 
example),  and  farther  continue  the  lines  of  such  diagonals  to  their  intersection  with  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  on  either  side  of  the  point  of  sight,  we  will  find  the  point  of  their  intersection  (l)  with 
the  line  of  the  horizon,  to  be  exactly  distant  from  the  point  of  sight — corresponding  with  the  dis- 
tance of  the  observer  from  the  base  or  ground  line  of  the  picture  ; that  is,  that  the  distance  from 
1 to  l (in  the  second  example  before  us)  corresponds  exactly  with  the  distance  from  m to  t,  as 
above  shown  in  the  representation  of  the  actual  position  of  the  eye,  as  well  as  of  the  square  and 

balls  in  question.  The  distance,  therefore,  between  1 and  l,  in  the  perspective  picture,  truly  repre- 

17 


130 


PERSPECTIVE. 


sents  the  Distance  or  the  Picture.  Hereafter,  when  we  measure  off,  or  point  our  assumed 
Distance , on  the  line  of  the  horizon,  the  pupil  must  remember  the  basis  upon  which  we  do  so.  It 
would  be  a long,  though  an  agreeable  task,  to  enter  into  the  mathematical  operation  by  which  the 
diagonal  of  the  square,  placed  in  perspective,  thus  verifies  the  point  of  distance  with  the  line  of 
the  horizon  and  point  of  sight ; and,  working  both  ways — the  surest  test  of  all  good  rules — gives 
us  the  means,  from  the  known  data  of  the  real  point  of  sight  and  distance,  to  produce,  not  only 
an  accurate  perspective  representation  of  the  square,  but,  by  its  aid,  any  other  point,  line,  or  form. 

42.  If,  without  increasing  our  distance  of  view,  we  elevate  the  position  of  the  eye  so  as  to 
bring  it  on  a level  with  the  top  of  the  eight  balls,  or  even  higher,  and  consequently  the  point  of 


sight  and  line  of  the  horizon  with  it,  no  change  occurs  in  the  relative  size  of  these  balls  as  pre- 
sented to  the  eye ; the  sides  of  the  square  lying  parallel  to  the  base  line  of  the  picture  are  still 
of  the  same  length,  the  point  of  distance  is  unchanged,  the  line  of  the  diagonal  of  the  square  still 
directs  to  it,  and  the  lines  of  the  other  sides  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight,  as  before. 

43.  These  important  and  elementary  principles,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  established  — 
i.  The  Point  of  Sight  must  be  in  the  centre  of  the  perspective  picture, 
ii.  All  lines  parallel  to  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the  Point 
of  Sight,  must  terminate  or  vanish  in  that  point. 
hi.  The  Line  of  the  Horizon  must  necessarily  rise  or  descend  with  the  position  of  the  eye, 
and  consequently  with  the  Point  of  Sight. 

iv.  The  Base  or  Ground  Line  of  the  picture,  and  all  others  parallel  with  it,  must  be  parallel 
with  the  Line  of  the  Horizon. 

v.  The  Diagonal  of  the  Square,  perspectively  represented,  directs  to  a point  on  the  Line 
of  the  Horizon — the  distance  from  which  point  to  the  Point  of  Sight  represents  the  true 
Distance  of  the  eye  of  the  observer  from  the  picture. 


PERSPECTIVE. 


131 


Upon  these  are  based  all  the  leading  principles  and  practical  operations  of  Perspective,  in  the 
perfect  comprehension  of  which  the  pupil  may  consider  himself  fortified  with  all  the  mysteries  of 
the  art.  So  important  may  they  be  justly  considered,  both  as  regards  the  clear  perception  of  their 
evidence  in  nature,  and  their  practical  application  to  art,  that  we  return  to  them  again  5 and  in 
doing  so,  look  again  to  nature  for  their  illustration  and  verification. 


44.  Let  us  suppose  an  observer  to  sit  at  a prescribed  distance  from  a window,  and  occupied  in 
drawing  the  view  without — which,  as  it  suits  our  purpose  better,  we  may  imagine  to  be  that  of  a 
street  running  directly  from,  or  at  right  angles  to  the  window.  Observe  I hat  the  eye  is  on  a level 
with  the  first  bar  of  the  sash  of  the  window : this  bar,  therefore,  is 
equivalent  to  our  Line  of  the  Horizon  ; and  the  point  on  this  line 
directly  opposite  to  the  eye  is  the  Point  of  Sight — to  which  point 
the  lines  of  the  eaves  of  the  houses,  those  of  the  street  (supposing  it 
to  be  level),  and  all  others  running  parallel  to  them,  or  at  right 
angles  to  the  window,  in  the  natural  picture,  are  directed  in  their 
receding  terminations  (41)  ; thus,  assuming  the  frame  of  the  win- 
dow as  that  of  our  proposed  picture  or  drawing,  we  have  the 
first  bar  of  the  sash  as  our  Line  of  the  Horizon — the  Point  of 
Sight  defined  on  that  line — the  distance  from  the  eye  to  that 
point— the  Distance  of  the  picture,  etc.  But  the  point  of  sight  is 
not  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  embraced  by  the  window-frame ; still  it  must  be  the  centre  of  the 
perspective  picture  (40),  our  picture  or  drawing  being  only  a portion  of  the  field  of  vision  em- 
braced by  the  eye. 


45.  This  leads  to  the  consideration  of,  if  not  a palpable  error,  at  least  an  unwarrantable  viola- 
tion of  perspective  truth,  too  often  committed  by  draughtsmen,  and  even  by  artists,  whom  we  know 
not  to  commit  such  error  for  want  of  knowledge,  but  from  sheer  carelessness,  or  unnecessary  sac- 
rifice of  truth,  to  gain  certain  ends,  perhaps,  in  the  composition  of  lines  and  masses,  which  might 
as  well  be  obtained  without  such  sacrifice.  Thus  we  sometimes  see  the  point  of  sight  assumed  on 
the  very  edge  of  the  canvass,  or  border  of  the  picture,  and  even  entirely  out  of  the  frame  of  the 
picture.  It  must  be  evident  to  all,  that  the  eye  instinctively  seeks  a point  to  view  a picture,  whether 
it  be  in  nature  or  art,  under  which  it  receives  its  most  agreeable  impression,  and  not  only  this,  but 
where  the  delicately-constructed  organ  of  sight  may  with  least  effort  receive  such  impression.  If, 
therefore,  the  eye  must  necessarily  be  directed  to  the  picture,  the  point  of  sight  can  concentrate 


132 


PERSPECTIVE 


nowhere  else  than  within  its  frame  somewhere,  and  as  near  its  centre  as  possible,  especially  with 
reference  to  its  horizontal  breadth  $ for  it  is  manifest  that  the  farther  we  remove  the  point  of  sight 
from  the  centre  of  our  picture,  the  farther  do  we  lessen  that  harmony  between  nature  and  art 
which  should  ever  exist.  When  we  have  exhausted  all  the  power  of  art,  there  is  enough  left  in 
which  we  fall  short,  without  diminishing  our  resources  by  wilful  and  unnecessary  perversion  of 
truth.  Would  it  not  be  absurd  to  imagine  that  any  one  desiring  to  look  at  a view  through  a win- 
dow, should  direct  his  sight  anywhere  else  than  within  its  frame  ? What  right  have  we,  therefore, 
to  assume  a larger  liberty  in  our  representations  of  nature  ? 


46.  With  regard  to  the  elevation  and  depression  of  the  Point  of  Sight , and  Line  of  the  Horizon. 


Let  us  imagine  ourselves  upon  the  seashore, 
our  eye  on  a level  with  that  of  the  first  fig- 
ure in  the  example  before  us.  The  line  that 
limits  our  view  of  the  ocean  answers  to  our 
Line  of  the  Horizon ; it  is  on  a level  with 
our  own  eye,  as  well  as  his,  and  touches  all 
other  points  or  objects  of  the  same  height ; 
we  can  not  see  the  deck  of  the  small  fishing- 
boat  ashore,  and  the  hull  of  the  distant  ship 
rises  above  it.  But,  we  climb  the  cliff,  until 
we  come  on  a level  with  the  standing  figure 
on  the  rock  in  shadow.  The  Line  of  the 
Horizon  follows,  as  it  were,  our  movement : 
we  now  see  the  deck  of  the  small  vessel 
ashore,  and  the  round  tops  of  the  ship  range 
with  the  horizon  ; one  small  vessel  near  the 
ship  becomes  more  visible,  and  another,  which 
was  before  hidden  by  the  rock  in  shadow,  is 
seen.  We  climb  still  higher,  until  we  reach 
a point  on  a level  with  the  highest  figure  in 
the  examples  5 the  line  of  the  horizon  ascends 
with  us,  and,  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
tranquil  sea,  we  have,  as  it  were,  a vast  per- 
spective plain,  defined  by  an  actual  line, 


PERSPECTIVE. 


133 


which  is  the  Line  of  the  Horizon — on  which  line  must  be  our  Point  of  Sight , corresponding, 
in  our  perspective  picture,  to  our  actual  point  of  view,  being  directly  facing,  or  opposite  to  it. 

47.  Let  us  suppose  ourselves  placed  in  a position  to  look  directly  up  the  centre  of  a long  canal, 
and,  for  the  sake  of  better  exemplification,  let  us  assume  the  cir- 
cular, as  the  most  natural  form  for  our  illustration  (40).  Our  point 
of  sight  concentrates  on  that  point  which  limits  our  utmost  vision, 
and  to  it  are  directed  all  lines,  in  the  scene  before  us,  running  par- 
allel to  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  our  point  of  actual  observa- 
tion to  the  point  of  sight — such  as  those  of  the  banks  of  the  canal, 
the  side  of  the  house  facing  it,  the  wall  on  our  left,  etc.  \ while  all 
level  lines,  which  in  nature  are  at  right  angles  to  this  imaginary 
line,  such  as  the  weather-boarding  of  the  gable  end  of  the  house, 
the  roof  of  the  shed,  etc.,  necessarily  are  in  the  perspective  picture  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  and,  if  the  frame  of  our  picture  were  rectangular,  would  also  be  parallel  to  its  hose  or 
ground  line.  We  change  our  position,  and  stand  immediately  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  canal,  so  as  to  bring  its  line  as  an  actual  per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  the  horizon,  preserving  our  extreme  view 
up  the  canal  as  our  Point  of  Sight , as  at  first.  More  of  the  front 
of  the  house  now  comes  within  the  range  of  our  vision,  and  the 
relative  position  of  the  various  objects  are  perspectively  changed, 
but  not  their  proportions,  as  our  distance  is  the  same.  As  before, 
the  same  rules  apply  with  reference  to  the  lines  terminating,  or 
directed  to  the  point  of  sight,  and  those  running  parallel  with  the 

line  of  the  horizon,  etc.  Without  moving  our  position,  we  change 
our  point  of  sight  from  the  extremity  of  the  canal,  by  looking 
directly  to  the  corner  of  the  house,  where  now  must  concentrate 
our  point  of  sight.  This  changes,  of  course,  the  imaginary  and 
governing  line  from  the  eye  to  that  point.  We  have  not,  now, 
perhaps,  a single  line  in  our  picture  which  is  either  parallel,  or  at 
right  angles  to  this  imaginary  line  — not  one,  therefore,  directing 
to,  or  concentrating  in,  the  point  of  sight  5 and  those  that  were 
before  parallel  with  the  horizon  are  so  no  longer  — and,  if  not 
parallel  to  the  line  of  the  horizon,  they  must  necessarily,  if  elongated  or  continued,  come  in  contact 


134 


PERSPECTIVE. 


with  it  at  some  point,  and  at  such  point  they  must  as  necessarily  meet,  or  form  a vanishing  point 
for  all  other  lines  that  may,  in  nature,  be  parallel  with  them.  Thus,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  last 
example,  the  lines  that  before  sought  the  point  of  sight  as  their  vanishing  point  on  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  do  so  no  longer,  but  they  must  still  concentrate,  as  before,  at  some  point  on  the  line  of 
the  horizon  and  harmonize  together.  While  those  that  were  before  parallel  to  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  from  their  being  in  nature  at  right  angles  to  the  imaginary  line  from  the  eye  of  the  obser- 
ver to  the  point  of  sight,  are  so  no  longer,  as  this  governing  line  has  been  changed ; they  therefore 
must  be  directed  to  and  terminate  in  some  point  on  the  line  of  the  horizon,  harmonizing  with  their 
true  position. 

48.  This  brings  us  to  a distinction  recognised  between  Parallel  and  Oblique  Perspective — a 
distinction  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  principles  of  the  art  beyond  a classification  of  their 
results.  The  more  the  art,  and  its  rules,  can  be  simplified  and  generalized,  the  better.  — As  the 
eye  recognises  but  one  general  rule  in  the  diminution  of  objects,  as  they  are  more  or  less  remote 
from  it,  so  should  it  be  in  the  art,  which  teaches  the  just  linear  representation  of  such  effects  in 
nature,  and  fortunately  its  rules  of  practical  application  are  so  simple  and  concise  that  the  intelli- 
gence of  their  governing  principles  leaves  no  necessity  for  such  classification,  and  consequently 
useless  amplification.  In  the  following  examples  are  given  instances  of  oblique  perspective.  As 


it  is  evident,  that,  in  one  and  the  same  picture,  objects  may  be  presented  in  every  possible  position, 
it  is  best  to  discard  such  classification  in  assuming  a general  principle  for  our  operations,  which 
will  be  found  to  serve  in  all  the  variety  of  position  and  circumstances  under  which  nature  may 
present  itself,  and  art  be  required  in  pictorial  representation.  In  the  beginning  we  have  endeav- 
ored to  show  a natural  progress  from  points  to  lines,  and  from  lines  to  forms,  as  the  basis  of  design : 
thus  we  proceed  in  perspective.  Having  consumed  as  much  space  as  our  limits  would  allow  in 
endeavoring  to  make  plain  to  the  student  the  first  principles  of  the  art,  as  developed  in  nature, 
and  in  showing  their  palpable  evidences,  therein  so  clearly  and  beautifully  exemplified,  let  us 
now  look  to  the  means  which  it  affords  of  their  practical  application  to  the  purposes  of  design. 


PERSPECTIVE. 


135 


49.  The  square  has  been  selected  in  our  first  lesson  on  the  geometrical  application  of  the  art, 
as  a form  not  only  most  intelligible,  but  at  the  same  time  valuable  in  consequence  of  the  unerring 
verification  of  its  diagonal  with  the  point  of  distance,  and  for  other  considerations  which  will  be 
made  evident  to  the  student  as  he  progresses.  Above  we  have  the  GEOMETRICAL  or 
GROUND  PLAN  of  a square  in  connexion  with  its  perspective  representation  or  Per- 
spective Plan  in  the  picture,  viewed  under  the  governing  circumstances  of  its  Point  of 
Sight , Line  of  the  Horizon , Distance , etc.  It  will  be  perceived  at  once  that  the  square 
of  the  perspective  picture  in  every  way  corresponds  with  that  of  the  geometrical  plan. 
Now,  every  one  who  essays  to  make  a drawing  or  picture,  can  readily  decide  upon  these 
points  in  advance — the  Size  of  his  picture , the  Line  of  the  horizon , and  Point  of  sight , 
and  lastly  the  DISTANCE  at  which  it  is  to  be  viewed,  which  distance  it  is  necessary  to 
have  accurately  defined,  and  here  the  Diagonal  of  the  Square  at  once  comes  to  his  aid. 
Having  drawn  the  lines  of  the  two  sides  of  the  square,  which  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight  (as 
explained,  41) — one  being  already  given  in  the  base  or  ground  line — the  fourth  alone  remains  to 


be  ascertained ; in  other  words,  having  the  lines  of  three  sides  of  the  square,  he  seeks  by  means  of 
its  diagonals  to  verify  the  position  of  the  two  points  that  remain  to  be  established  in  harmony  with 
the  perspective  circumstances  of  distance  and  elevation  of  the  eye  under  which  it  is  viewed.  He 
therefore  measures  off  on  the  line  of  the  horizon,  from  the  point  of  sight,  the  true  distance,  from 
which  point  a line  drawn  to  the  extreme  points  of  the  base  line,  representing  the  side  of  the  square, 
lying,  as  it  were,  on  the  edge  of  the  picture,  and  he  has  its  diagonals,  and  consequently  its  fourth 
required  side.  And  further,  if  he  is  able  to  produce  the  square  of  the  geometrical  plan  thus  accu- 
rately placed  in  perspective,  he  has  the  basis  therein  of  any  other  form  or  figure,  as  above  shown, 
observing,  however,  that  there  is  a necessary  reversion  of  the  geometrical  plan  in  its  perspective 
reproduction.  Before  going  further,  it  is  desirable  that  the  student  should  exercise  himself  in  this 
simple  and  easy  application  of  the  geometrical  plan  of  a square  to  the  perspective  picture  5 in  doing 
which, the  larger  he  makes  his  drawings  the  better,  as  error  is  thus  more  evident  and  accuracy 
more  certainly  attained  — extending  the  points  of  distance,  elevating  and  depressing  the  line  of  the 


PERSPECTIVE. 


137 


horizon,  etc.,  closely  observing  and  making  himself  familiar  with  the  existing  harmony  between 
the  geometrical  and  perspective  square  in  all  its  details.  Thus,  having  ascertained  the  four  car- 
dinal points,  angles,  or  corners  of  the  square  in  perspective,  he  finds,  as  in  the  geometrical  square, 
the  diagonals  at  their  intersection  give  its  centre  ; this  found,  he  may  divide  it  as  readily  as 
the  real  square  into  four  equal  rectangular  divisions  — again,  into  triangles,  etc. ; and  thus, 
on  the  basis  of  such  like  divisions,  points,  and  angles,  he  has  the  means  of  ascertaining  the 
truthful  representation  of  any  form  or  object  he  may  desire.  It  will  be  as  easy  for  him  in  the 
end  to  draw  a perspective  as  a geometrical  plan,  and  with  equal  accuracy.  After  a perfect 
comprehension  of  the  principles  involved  in  the  process,  it  will  be  no  longer  necessary  for 
him,  in  all  cases,  to  draw  the  entire  ground  plan  of  his  perspective  picture  in  his  practical 
operations. 


50.  Suppose,  for  example,  he  desires  to  place  two  squares  in  perspective  — the  one  (a)  lying 

on  the  edge  of  his  picture,  and  parallel  to  it  — the  other 
( b ) at  a distance  from  the  base  line,  equal  to  a b,  and  also 
parallel  to  it.  The  assumed  point  of  sight  (c)  secures 
the  direction  of  two  of  the  sides  of  each  square,  and  the 
point  of  distance  ( d ) giving  the  diagonals,  leaves  nothing  more  to  be 
desired.  For  the  square  a he  has  to  proceed  as  before  shown;  but 
for  b he  requires  a diagonal  equal  to  that  of  a square  of  which  the 
measure  of  one  of  its  sides  should  be  equal  to  a c : this  he  readily  as- 
certains by  placing  his  compasses  on  the  point  a,  and  either  striking 
an  arc  to  its  intersection  with  the  base  line,  or  simply  making  ad  on  the  base  line  equal  to  ac  — 
thus  having  (in  ad  — ac)  two  sides  of  a square  of  which  ac  would  be  the  diagonal,  a line  drawn 
from  d,  (the  point  of  distance,)  gives  this  diagonal  in  perspective,  and  by  its  intersection  with  the 
lines  ce  — c a,  the  points  which  verify  and  represent  the  perspective  view  of  the  square  b under  all 
the  circumstances  it  was  desired  to  place  it  in  the  picture. 


51.  Having  by  this  process  ascertained  the  true  perspective  view  of  the  two  squares,  always 

supposing  them  lying  in  a horizontal  or  level  position  — which  for  the  sake  of  exemplification  wv 

may  suppose  to  represent  the  bottom  of  a box,  which,  if  its  sides  were  all  put  together,  would 

make  a cube  — it  is  evident  that  if  two  sides  were  added,  corresponding  in  size  to  the  squares 

already  drawn,  which  may  be  said  to  represent  the  bottom  of  such  a box,  or  base  of  a cube,  and 

fitted  thereto  as  shown  on  the  following  page  — first  on  the  sides  lying  parallel  to  the  base  line 

18 


] 3S 


PERSPECTIVE. 


✓ 

of  the  picture,  and  next  against  those  at  right  angles  to  it  — they  would  perspectively  appear  as 

figured,  the  true  measures  assumed  upon 
the  base  line  of  the  picture,  as  indicated 
by  the  line  g f,  for  the  perpendicular 
sides  and  which  may  be  made  to  serve  as 
well  for  those  lying  horizontal,  by  their 
simple  adaptation  thereto. 


52.  Let  us  presume  this  cube,  or  square  box,  to  be  exactly  six  feet  high : it  gives  us,  as  it 

were,  a scale,  by  the  aid  of  which,  and 
by  an  analogous  operation,  we  can,  up- 
on the  same  principles,  place  any  other 
\ Imyri  object  or  figure,  of  any  given  height  or 

I xllJlIill  size,  on  the  perspective  plan  of  our  pic- 

ture, with  as  much  certainty  as  if  it 


rested  on  the  base  line  and  represented  its  exact  dimensions.  The  example  of  a figure,  the 
height  of  the  box,  holding  a pole,  say  fourteen  feet  high,  will  show  the  simplicity  of  the  operation. 


53.  Once  more  it  may  be  desirable  to  refer  to  the  value  of  the  geometrical  or  ground  plan , 
not  so  much  for  the  necessity  of  its  use  in  general  practice,  as  to  insure  a perfect  comprehension 
of  the  principles  of  its  connexion  and  harmony  with  its  perspective  representation.  When  these 
are  properly  understood,  there  exists  no  necessity  for  a ground  plan  in  most  cases,  beyond  its 
distinct  impression  on  the  mind.  In  the  example  on  the  next  page,  to  which  we  now  refer, 
assuming  our  picture  (a  b c d)  to  be  of  the  proportion  of  twelve  by  eight  parts,  according  to  tli3 
scale  which  we  intend  our  design  to  be,  in  reference  to  the  true  and  natural  size  of  the  objects, 
we  may  call  these  parts  the  representations  of  feet.  Having  the  size  of  our  intended  picture 
secured,  we  have  next  to  decide  upon  the  Line  of  the  Horizon,  Points  of  Sight  and  Distance,  and 
by  the  aid  of  these  to  produce  a perspective  square  (a  ef  d)  l>y  the  easy  process  already  shown 
(49).  a d representing  one  side  of  this  square  on  the  scale  which  the  picture  is  assumed  to  be 
in  reference  to  the  natural  size  of  the  objects  it  is  to  represent,  we  next  proceed  to  measure  off 
on  this  line  twelve  parts  $ and  first  having  drawn  lines  from  each  of  these  points  of  measurement 
to  the  point  of  sight  ( 1 ),  we  then  by  the  aid  of  the  diagonals  (d  e — a f ) get  by  their  intersection 
with  these  lines  the  points  which  secure  us  the  further  division,  with  as  perfect  perspective 
certainty,  of  the  sides  d f — a e into  twelve  equal  parts,  as  we  have  on  a d and  e f;  and  our 


PERSPECTIVE. 


139 


X 

\ 


perspective  plan  as  accurately  divided  into  one  hundred  and  forty-four  squares,  each  per- 
spectively  representing  a square  foot,  as 
we  could  have  it  thus  divided  and  pro- 
portioned in  a geometrical  plan.  The 
lines  a e — d f,  therefore,  being  in  every 
respect  perspectively  equivalent  to  a d and 
e f,  as  well  in  their  twelve  equal  divisions 
as  in  their  whole  length,  vertical  lines 
erected  on  the  points  marking  these  di- 
visions, must  necessarily  correspond  in 
their  perspective  proportions  with  the 
scale  of  the  horizontal  line  on  which 
they  rest  (51,  52).  Thus,  if  we  measure  off  eight  parts  on  a b equal  to  the  divisions  on  a d,  we 
have  on  a b as  accurate  a scale  for  perpendicular  lines  and  objects  as  we  have  on  a d for  those 
lying  level  or  horizontal. 


54.  Let  us  suppose  we  desired  to  erect  a perpendicular  line  on  the  line  e f at  the  point  a — 

which  shall  be  eight  parts  (or  feet)  high.  This  we  may  do  at  once  by  drawing  a line  from  the 
point  of  sight  through  the  point  a,  and  extending  it  to  the  base  line  (as  i ac);  on  the  point  c erect 

a perpendicular  (as  cb),  and  on  this  perpendicular  measure  off  eight  parts,  which  in  this  in- 
stance the  height  of  the  picture  gives  us  \ then  draw  a line  from  b to  the  point  of  sight,  and  its 

intersection  with  a perpendicular  drawn  from  a will  give  the  line  a e required.  If  this  perpen- 

dicular falls,  or  be  erected,  on  any  point  along  the  line  e f,  its  length  and  proportions  must  be 
the  same,  and  correspond  to  the  proportions  of  e f in  every  respect.  Should  we  desire  to  place 
this  perpendicular  on  any  part  of  the  square  (as  f e),  the  process  is  precisely  the  same,  as  well 
as  its  verification ; or  a still  shorter  way  may  be  adopted,  based  upon  this  process,  by  measuring 
the  height  of  the  perpendicular  by  the  parts  of  the  horizontal  line  on  which  it  rests.  Thus  it  will 
be  found  that  f g is  equal  to  eight  parts  taken  on  the  line  n f k,  on  which  it  rests ; and  a e is  equal 
to  eight  parts  of  the  line  e a f , as  the  lines  a b — cb  — d c are  severally  equal  to  eight  parts  of 
A D or  3 c. 

55.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  in  the  division  and  subdivision  of  all  perspective  forms  or 
figures,  they  should  be  treated  precisely  as  though  they  were  drawn  on  a geometrical  or  ground 
plan. . As  a e f d truly  represents  an  actual  square,  so  do  all  its  parts  and  proportions.  All  the 


140 


PERSPECTIVE. 


angles  of  its  one  hundred  and  forty-four  divisions  represent  right  angles,  and  all  their  sides  are 
equal  to  one  another : consequently,  all  their  diagonals  must  be  considered  as  intersecting  each 
other  at  right  angles,  etc.  5 and,  further,  all  less  regular  forms  are  thus  equally  effected.  Let  us 
take,  for  instance,  the  parallelogram  formed  by  f k m g in  the  example  we  have  just  considered,  as 
best  suited  to  our  purpose,  and  by  repeating  its  front  and  side  view,  as  perspectively  seen  under 
different  modifications,  exemplify  the  harmony  of  this  operation,  which  is  placed  before  the 
student  for  his  study  and  practical  exercise,  preparatory  to  that  which  we  have  now  to  consider. 


56.  It  may  have  appeared  that  the  way  of  the  beginning  in  the  study  of  the  art  of  perspec- 
tive has  been  long,  and  as  yet  no  practical  results  have  been  attained.  We  gladly,  therefore, 
hasten  to  convince  the  student,  who  has  carefully  pursued  the  course  thus  far  laid  down,  that 
he  has  secured,  in  the  possession  of  a comprehension  of  its  elementary  and  leading  principles,  a 
solid  basis  that  leaves  but  little  more  than  his  own  intelligence,  practical  observation,  and  appli- 
cation, to  complete  the  work.  The  guide  may  now  safely  assume  the  part  of  companionship, 
and  both  may  now  reason  together  more  understanding^.  Having  in  view  the  design  presented, 

in  connexion  with  the  exemplifications  which 
follow  on  the  next  page,  it  will  be  easy  to 
show  that  every  principle  and  rule  of  per- 
spective involved  in  its  production  have  al- 
ready been  explained  and  placed  within  the 
means  of  practical  application.  In  review- 


session,  and  may  recover  something  lost  sight 
of  or  perchance  neglected,  the  want  of  which 
we  may  sensibly  require  hereafter.  Let  us  therefore  do  it  carefully,  for  the  profit  will  well  repay 
the  pains. 


ing  the  ground  which  we  have  passed  over, 
we  make  ourselves  more  secure  of  its  pos- 


PERSPECTIVE. 


L41 


p 

77. 

J 

CSnunTTnia 

B 

57.  We  have  here  the  general  perspective  outline  of  an  apartment  corresponding  with  its 
geometrical  or  ground  plan  annexed,  which  has  been  produced  precisely  as  that  already  pre- 
sented and  explained  (53,  54,  55).  We  therefore  know  that  its  walls  represent  the  height  of 

eight  feet  5 that  its  floor  is  twelve  feet  in 
depth,  from  the  base  line  of  the  picture  to 
its  extremity ; that  it  is  of  the  same  width 
until  it  reaches  the  distance  of  six  feet,  at 
which  it  becomes  narrower  by  a little  over 
four  feet,  which  are  taken  from  it  by  the 
projection  of  the  doorway  or  entry.  Every 
foot  of  its  floor,  which,  for  the  sake  of  ma- 
king the  end  to  which  we  aim  more  clear, 
we  may  consider  as  tesselated  in  squares 
of  a foot  each.  Every  foot  of  this  floor  is 
therefore  laid  off  as  accurately  in  the  per- 
spective as  in  the  geometrical  plan  — and 
thus,  if  desired,  every  inch  of  it  might  be 
as  positively  defined  5 and  not  only  on  the 
floor,  but  on  the  walls,  ceiling,  etc.,  in  like 
manner.  It  would  argue  little  for  our  prog- 
ress, even  thus  far,  in  the  acquirement  of 
knowledge  of  the  art,  were  we  not  able,  upon  such  data,  to 
place  any  object,  we  desired  to  introduce  in  this  apartment, 
in  its  just  perspective  position  and  its  right  proportions.  Re- 
ferring to  the  geometrical  plan  rather  to  bear  in  mind  the 
matter-of-fact  premises  assumed  by  the  artist  in  making  out 
his  design,  let  us  follow  his  practical  movements.  Having 
previously  fortified  himself  with  a general  idea  or  impression 
of  his  subject,  and  perhaps  with  a memorandum  or  sketch  before  him,  he  has  arranged  the  dimen- 
sions and  general  outline  of  the  apartment,  and  marked  off  the  various  measurements  and  divis- 
ions which  he  will  most  likely  have  occasion  to  require.  This  he  can  do  in  chalk,  charcoal,  soft 
lead  pencil,  or  some  such  substance,  whose  marks  may  be  easily  erased  after  their  service  has 
secured  the  end  desired.  As  yet  he  has  nothing  but  the  tesselated  floor  and  blank  walls  defined. 
The  floor  in  its  squares  gives  him  as  certain  and  well-defined  a basis  upon  which  to  place  the 


i 


142 


PE  RSPECTIVE. 


figures  and  objects  he  may  desire  to  introduce  in  his  picture,  as  to  place  the  men  upon  a chess- 
board. Whether  the  floor  is  tesselated  or  not,  the  same  expedient  equally  serves  ; for  after  having 
fulfilled  the  service  of  their  intention,  all  vestiges  of  these  lines  may  be  easily  erased.  In  like 
manner  as  the  floor,  every  portion  of  the  interior  of  the  apartment,  the  walls,  ceiling,  etc.,  may 
be  thus  laid  off,  if  required  — leaving  the  artist  a freedom  as  unlimited  as  his  design  in  placing 
the  principal  and  accessory  objects  and  details  of  the  picture  at  once  in  their  true  perspective 
position.  If,  for  instance,  he  should  desire,  as  in  the  case  before  us,  to  place  a window  four  feet 
square,  whose  sill  shall  be  three  feet  from  the  floor,  in  the  middle  of  the  left-hand  wall,  the  divis- 
ions already  described  thereon  give  him  at  once  all  the  points  he  requires,  which  the  example 
we  have  just  had  under  consideration  will  sufficiently  show,  aided  by  what  has  been  before 
explained  (55).  Immediately  in  front  of  this  window  he  desires  to  place  a table  (a)  five  feet 
long  and  two  feet  eight  inches  broad  and  high  : again  the  dimensions  described  on  the  wall  and 
floor  come  as  efficiently  to  his  aid.  To  decide  upon  the  points  on  which  the  figures  (b  — c) 
stand,  will  be  found  equally  as  easy;  and  even  the  position  of  the  chairs  (d— e),  although  pre- 
sented obliquely,  will  occasion  no  insurmountable  difficulty,  especially  after  the  careful  study  of 
that  which  will  presently  be  offered  on  the  subject.  The  position  of  the  various  objects  and 
figures  of  the  picture  being  thus  accurately  defined,  their  perpendicular  measurements  in  reference 
to  such  perspective  position  alone  remains  to  be  ascertained. 

58.  To  prevent  entanglement  of  thought  and  operation  by  a multiplicity  of  lines,  we  avail 

ourselves  of  so  much  of  the  example,  which 
we  have  under  consideration,  as  may  be  re- 
quired for  our  immediate  purposes.  Begin- 
ning with  the  principal  standing  figure,  we 
find  his  position  four  feet  from  the  base 
line  of  the  picture.  On  the  line  of  the  floor, 
therefore,  corresponding  to  four  feet  from  the 
base  line,  we  take  the  measure  of  six  of  its 
parts,  representing  feet,  (being  the  ordinary 
standard  of  a man’s  height,)  and  making  some 
little  allowance  for  his  stooping  attitude,  the 
perpendicular  line  drawn  from  his  left  heel,  being  equal  to  the  six  parts  taken  from  the  horizontal 
line  on  which  he  stands,  gives  us  all  that  we  require.  This  is  perhaps  the  easiest  and  shortest 
method.  In  the  instance  of  the  figure  of  the  girl  standing  behind  the  table,  a similar  course  might 


58.  To  prevent  entanglement  of  thought  and 


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143 


be  pursued  5 but  let  us  select  another,  as  well  to  show  the  agreement  in  the  results  of  the  art,  as 
further  to  discover  to  the  student  its  resources.  Having  decided  upon  the  position  on  the  floor, 
or  pavement, on  which  the  figure  may  be  supposed  to  stand,  we  connect  it  by  a right  line,  from 
the  point  of  sight,  extending  to  the  base  line  of  the  picture,  on  which,  from  the  point  of  such 
connexion,  we  erect  a perpendicular,  which,  by  the  original  scale  of  proportions  laid  off,  or 
assumed, upon  the  base  line,  we  make  equal  to  the  real  height  of  the  figure  (say  five  and  a third 
parts,  representing  five  feet,  four  inches),  as  if  it  stood  upon  that  line.  A line  drawn  from  the 
height  of  this  perpendicular  of  the  base  line  to  the  point  of  sight,  must  necessarily  give,  by  its 
meeting  a perpendicular  erected  from  the  position  on  the  floor,  or  perspective  plane  or  plan,  the 
just  perspective  height  or  measure  of  that  figure  in  reference  to  its  distance  from  the  base  line 
(51,  etc.).  Thus,  by  either  this  or  other  methods,  based  upon  the  elementary  laws  of  the  art, 
may  we  proceed  throughout  our  picture  5 beginning  with  certainty,  no  matter  where,  and  keeping 
all  in  harmony  with  that  beginning  throughout  our  progress ; adapting  the  graphic  representation 
to  the  instinctive  impulses  and  requirements  of  that  delicate  sense  by  which  the  impressions  of 
art  are  conveyed  to  the  mind,  so  that  in  its  perfect  accordance  with  the  habits  of  observation 
with  which  the  eye  most  agreeably  receives  the  impressions  of  nature,  it  meets  an  equal  recep- 
tion, acknowledged  and  unquestioned,  as  the  reality.  The  sympathetic  language  of  the  thought 
makes  it  welcome  and  intelligible.  Art  accomplishes  its  ends,  and  acceptation  rewards  the 
artist. 

59.  To  some,  even  these  operations,  simple  as  they  are,  may  prove  embarrassing,  and  an 
inverse  method  more  desirable,  by  first  adapting  the  perspective  operation  to  the  principal  figure, 
group,  or  motive  of  the  picture,  and  thence  proceeding  to  its  details  and  accessories.  This,  it 
must  be  admitted,  is  the  more  artist-like,  the  other  the  more  mechanical  method  of  procedure. 
In  both,  however,  will  be  found  the  utmost  harmony  of  results,  and  in  the  principles  of  the  art 
involved  in  their  attainment,  which,  when  once  perfectly  understood,  the  artist  may  set  to  work 
with  more  latitude  in  his  methods  of  reaching  his  object  of  just  representation.  Instead  of  begin- 
ning with  the  perspective  of  the  apartment,  and  other  details,  which  perhaps  it  may  be  desirable 
to  make  subservient  to  the  leading  group  or  subject,  to  insure  certain  effects  of  light,  shadow, 
color,  or  composition,  and  which  it  may  be  better  to  leave  as  an  after-consideration  — the  artist 
makes  his  beginning  with  the  principal  group,  by  first  deciding  as  to  the  space  it  shall  fill  on  the 
field  of  the  picture,  leaving  as  yet  unsettled  the  distance,  horizon  line,  etc.  Having  sketched  in 
the  general  idea  of  this  commencement,  he  assumes  its  proportions  to  represent  the  standard  or 
scale  of  all  other  details  or  objects  he  may  desire  to  introduce  in  his  composition : and  drawing  a 


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144 

horizontal  line  through  the  point  on  which  his  leading  figure  stands,  he  takes  the  height  of  that 
figure  (say  six  parts,  or  six  feet),  which,  reduced  to  a scale  on  that  line,  gives  all  that  he  requires 
as  a basis  for  after-operations.  He  must  now  decide  upon  the  point  of  sight,  which  necessarily 
gives  with  it  the  line  of  the  horizon,  then  the  distance  of  the  picture,  etc.  If  he  desires  to  tes- 
selate  the  floor,  for  instance,  lines  drawn  from  the  point  of  sight  through  the  divisions  on  this 
horizontal  line  will  repeat  the  scale  as  justly  on  the  ground  line  and  throughout  the  whole  per- 
spective plan  of  the  picture  as  if  he  had  begun  as  first  suggested  ; the  horizontal  line  first  assumed, 
serving  the  practical  purposes  of  a base  line  and  with  equal  efficiency. 

60.  Again,  as  in  the  case  of  a view  that  it  would  be  almost  impracticable,  if  it  were  even 
necessary,  to  reduce  to  a measured  perspective  plan,  we  may  select  any  one  object  which  may 
be  considered  as  a definite  standard,  and  on  such  premises  reduce  all  other  objects  and  details 
into  perfect  perspective  harmony,  by  means  most  simple  and  easy.  In  the  case  before  us,  it 
would  be  as  difficult  as  unnecessary  to  draw  a geometrical  plan.  It  is  easier  to  tesselate  a 

pavement  and  define  every  inch  of  it  than  to 
tesselate  the  traceless  ocean,  and  yet  do  objects 
floating  on  its  calm  or  disturbed  surface  come 
as  equally  within  the  government  of  the  laws 
of  perspective.  Here  we  have  all  our  lines  of 
operation  and  verification  to  assume,  except  our 
line  of  the  horizon  and  point  of  sight.  Which- 
d ever  object  we  select  as  our  standard,  if  it  be 

the  sloop  ( b ) nearest  to  us,  for  instance,  we  take  its  full  height  by  a perpendicular  from  its  vane 
to  a central  point  between  the  water  lines  which  mark  its  floating  position  on  the  perspective 
plane  of  the  picture  (64),  and  connect  the  extreme  points  of  this  perpendicular  with  the  point  of 
sight.  W e next  decide  upon  the  position  of  the  ship  ( a ) by  the  line  f f.  Supposing  the  ship  ( a ) 
to  be  three  times  the  height  of  the  sloop  (b),  a perpendicular  elevated  anywhere  on  the  line  f f 
three  times  the  height  that  the  sloop  would  be  if  she  were  perspectively  on  that  line  ( f f ),  will 
give  the  true  height  of  the  ship  as  exemplified  5 for  it  is  evident  that  if  the  sloop  were  at  the  same 
distance  as  the  ship  ( a ),  that  is,  on  the  line  f f,  her  height  would  appear  as  indicated  — a b — etc. 
Again,  still  more  remote  from  us,  let  us  suppose  another  ship  ( d ) four  times  the  height  of  the 
sloop,  the  horizontal  line  a-  a expressing  that  distance.  By  a like  process  do  we  attain  the  height 
of  the  ship  d under  such  circumstances  5 while  another  ship  (h),  still  more  remote,  supposed  to 
be  of  the  same  height  as  a,  may  be  thus  equally,  and  by  a similar  method,  brought  into  true 


PERSPECTIVE. 


146 


perspective  proportion.  It  matters  not  which  object  we  begin  with,  or  upon  what  point  on 
the  line  of  the  horizon  we  fix  as  our  vanishing  line  or  point  of  sight:  the  result  will  be  the 
same. 

61.  If  we  choose,  however,  to  have  recourse  to  horizontal  instead  of  perpendicular  measure- 
ments, we  can  do  so.  As  one  method  illustrates  and  verifies  the  other,  let  us  take  an  outline  of 
the  picture  under  consideration,  and  select  as  our  standard  of  proportion  the  ship  a.  We  take 
her  height  (at),  and  (as  indicated  by  an  arc 
or  by  measurement)  transfer  it  to  the  horizon- 
tal line  f f 5 then  from  the  point  of  sight,  or 
vanishing  point  ( c ),  we  draw  a line  passing 
through  the  extreme  as  well  as  the  dividing 
points  of  this  horizontal  measure.  Now,  it  is 
plain  that  if  the  numerical  points  123,  meas- 
ured from  b,  on  the  line  f f,  are  equal  to  the 
corresponding  points  on  the  perpendicular  lines  a b , drawn  through  them  and  extended  to  the  line  e e 
will  give  12  3 on  e e perspectively  equivalent  to  those  on  f f — which,  being  equal  to  the  like  divis- 
ions on  a b (the  height  of  the  ship  a),  and  the  measure  of  one  of  these  divisions,  as  e f taken  on 
the  line  e e,  must  necessarily  give  the  true  height  of  the  sloop  floating  on  the  line  e e.  And, 
further,  if  the  ship  a were  on  the  line  e e instead  of  f f,  her  height  would  be  equal  to  the  measure 
between  g and  3 on  that  line.  In  like  manner  we  may  proceed  with  b,  and  so  on  throughout  the 
picture 5 keeping  always  in  mind  the  principles  of  the  art,  and  working  in  harmony  with  them, 
our  methods  of  operation  can  not  lead  to  error. 

62.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  ascertaining  the  height  of  an  object  in  perspective,  we 
must  do  so  by  means  of  a perpendicular  drawn  or  imagined  to  fall  from  the  highest  point  of  such 
object  to  the  perspective  plane.  Thus,  as  in  the  following  examples,  the  perspective  height  of 
the  pyramidal  figures  is  not  to  be  measured  on  their  outline,  but  by  a perpendicular  (a  b)  falling 
from  their  highest  (a)  to  the  central  point  (b)  of  their  base.  In  like  manner,  we  are  not  to 
measure  the  height  of  the  vessels,  in  the  examples  we  have  just  had  under  consideration,  from 
the  top  of  their  masts  to  the  water-line  nearest  to  us,  but  to  a central  line  and  point  between 
the  water-lines  on  either  side  of  their  hulls— presuming  the  vessels  to  be  becalmed,  sitting  per- 
fectly even  on  the  water,  and  their  masts  to  be  perpendicular.  If  otherwise,  either  by  the  action 

of  the  wind  or  other  causes,  we  must  still  have  recourse  to  a perpendicular  as  the  basis  of 

19 


146 


PERSPECTIVE. 


regulating  their  just  perspective  proportions  as  to  height  5 and  the  same  observations  are  appli- 
cable to  any  other  objects,  as  will  be  more  fully  shown  hereafter. 


63.  The  judicious  selection  of  a Point  or  Dis- 
tance for  a picture  should  be  one  of  the  first  con- 
siderations with  an  artist,  and  here  again  he  has  but 
to  apply  to  art  the  practical  teachings  of  nature. 
The  size,  the  subject,  the  situation  it  is  destined  to 
occupy,  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  to  be 
viewed,  all  require  to  be  thought  of  in  deciding  upon 
the  Point  of  Distance  of  a picture.  It  will  be  found  that  the  delicately-constructed  organ  of 
sight  instinctively  refuses  to  receive  more  than  a certain  field  of  vision  ; and  that  as  this  field  is 
increased,  it  seeks  relief  by  increase  of  view.  Thus,  if  we  have  a little  picture  of  three  inches 
in  size,  a point  to  view  it  less  than  nine  inches  distant  from  it  is  painful  to  the  eye.  A more 

distant  point  may  be  agreeable,  but 
rarely  one  nearer,  except  with  per- 
sons of  defective  vision  — and  even 
then  the  eye  wanders  over,  rather 
than  embraces  the  whole.  If  it  be 
nine  inches  in  size,  eighteen  inches  may  be  fairly  regarded  as  the  most  pleasing  point  of  dis- 
tance 5 thus,  also,  if  of  eighteen  inches  in  size,  at  least  fifty-four  inches  of  distance  should  be 
allowed.  Increase  these  sizes  for  the  picture  to  feet,  and  like  will  be  the  result.  Hence  we 
may  set  it  down  as  a general  rule,  to  be  consistent  with  the  instinctive  laws  of  vision,  that  the 
distance  of  a picture  should  he  at  least  equal  to  three  times  its  size. 


PERSPECTIVE. 


14? 


64.  It  is  from  neglect  or  disregard  of  this  rule  that  pictures  often  offend  by  the  violence  of 
their  perspective.  The  eye  instinctively  rejects  such  impressions  when  they  do  not  harmonize 
with  its  accustomed  habits  of  observation  of  nature:  everything  seems  disordered  and  disor- 
ganized, as  they  really  are  5 it  forms  no  just  ideas  of  the  relative  positions  and  proportions  of 
the  scene  or  objects  represented 5 and  falling  back  upon  its  own  impulsive  conclusions,  subjects 
art  to  a severer  ordeal  and  a truer  one  than  the  most  learned  jury  of  the  schools,  who  are  too 
often  blinded  by  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  forgetful  of  that  simplicity  of  truth  which  is  its  soul, 
as  it  should  be  its  substance,  purpose,  and  end.  In  the  first  example,  we  have  an  outline  of 


an  apartment  equal  in  depth  and  width,  with  three  figures  viewed  at  the  distance  of  three  times 
the  width  of  the  picture  5 in  the  second  and  third  of  the  same  apartment,  with  like  figures,  this 

distance  is  reduced  with  evident  progress 
to  disproportion,  and  in  the  fourth  the  er- 
ror becomes  still  more  palpable  — which  a 
solitary  column  and  a square  block  or  cube 
presented  on  the  two  extremes  of  these 
examples  will  render  still  more  apparent. 

The  least  practised  eye  will  be  struck  by  the  comparison. 

65.  To  carry  out  our  illustration  of  violation  of  a proper  selection  of  the  distance  of  a 
picture,  we  have  at  the  head  of  the  next  page  the  same  view  taken  at  two  distances  — the  one 
equal  to  three  times  the  width  of  the  picture,  the  other  at  but  one  half  its  breadth,  thereby 
reducing  it,  especially  in  the  foreground,  into  positive  distortion.  In  other  words,  with  a point 


148 


PERSPECTIVE. 


of  distance  assumed  so  near  that  the  eye  recognises  neither  unity  nor  harmony  in  its  proportions. 
If  the  eye  were  placed  so  near  to  the  first  object  in  the  picture  (the  corner  post  of  the  fence) 
as  the  distance  of  the  second  example  indicates,  it  would  naturally  discard  from  its  picture  the 


nearer  objects,  and,  as  it  were,  select  a more  remote  base  line  — naturally  seeking  to  supply 
the  want  of  distance  by  concentrating  the  extent  of  its  field  of  vision  into  a narrower  space,  and 
consequently  reducing  the  size  of  the  picture  to  its  distance,  where  it  can  not  increase  the 
distance,  to  embrace  a more  agreeable  view  of  the  picture.  For,  as  objects  are  more  remote 
in  the  perspective  picture,  the  exaggeration  in  relation  to  them,  produced  by  an  injudicious 
selection  of  distance  between  the  point  of  observation  and  the  picture,  is  gradually  lost,  the 
size  of  the  picture  being  reduced,  and  consequently  the  point  of  distance  increased  in  proportion 
to  such  reduction.  Take  as  much  of  the  view  in  the  second  as  we  have  in  the  first  example  for 
our  picture,  discarding  the  nearer  objects,  and  we  have  thus  a nearer  approach  to  a proper  and 
well-proportioned  distance  by  such  reduction  of  its  size.  (Chap.  YU.,  40.) 

66.  The  difficulty  often  felt  by  artists  for  want  of  space  to  extend  a proper  distance  on  the 
line  of  the  horizon  as  far  out  of  the  frame  of  the  picture  as  may  be  necessary,  fortunately  admits 
of  easy  remedy.  In  truth,  for  most  purposes  of  practical  operation,  there  will  seldom  be  found 
occasion  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of  the  drawing-board  or  canvass,  however  it  may  be  better  in 
the  study  thereof  for  the  clearer  elucidation  of  its  principles.  As  well  secured  and  certain  points 
upon  our  perspective  plan,  which  are  governed  by  the  point  of  distance,  in  connexion  with  the 
diagonal  of  the  square,  form  the  basis  of  most  perspective  operations,  the  following  method  of 
fixing  a fictitious  point  of  any  required  distance  within  the  frame  of  the  picture  can  not  fail, 
from  its  value,  of  eliciting  the  serious  consideration  of  the  student,  and  induce  his  earnest  study 
and  attention.  Let  us  suppose  our  intended  picture  to  be  of  the  width  of  six  parts  (which  we 
may  call  inches,  feet,  etc.),  and  we  require  therefor  a working  point  within  its  frame  that  shall 


PERSPECTIVE.  149 

bo  equivalent  to  a point  of  distance  of  three  times  its  width  — that  is,  eighteen  parts  measured 
on  the  line  of  the  horizon  from  the  point  of  sight. 

Without  entering  upon  a more  minute  mathematical  investigation  of  the  principles  involved 
than  may  be  necessary  for  the  practical  application  of  the  rule,  and  which  a reference  to  the 
geometrical  and  perspective  square  sufficiently  illustrate,  let  us  begin  by  marking  off  on  the 
base  line  six  equal  divisions,  to  represent  the  six  parts  which  make  the  width  of  the  picture.  We 
have  the  geometrical  square  a b f e truly  represented  by  the  perspective  square  acdb;  its 
diagonal  a d verifying  the  distance  (io)  of  eighteen  parts;  and  the  geometrical  parallelogram 
a b f c perspectively  produced  in  »BDb.  It  is  plain  that  the  line  cd  gives  a perspective  depth 
equal  to  any  side  of  the  geometrical  square  : it  therefore  represents  the  depth  of  six  parts.  The 

perspective  diagonal  ad  of  the  square,  and  the  perspective  diago- 
nal a d of  the  parallelogram,  unite  on  one  common  point  d,  as  do 


the  diagonals  f a — f a of  the  geometrical  plan  at  f ; and  h is  as 
veritable  a vanishing  point  on  the  line  of  the  horizon  for  the 
diagonal  of  the  parallelogram  as  g is  for  the  diagonal  of  the 
square.  Now,  by  the  aid  of  the  diagonal  of  the  square,  we  have 
at  o our  true  working  distance,  but  it  is  out  of  the  picture.  We 
therefore,  to  secure  a working  point  upon  a similar  basis  within 
the  limits  of  the  picture,  make  as  it  were  a fictitious  square  of 
the  parallelogram,  by  dividing  its  side  a b into  six  parts,  and 
assuming  these  six  fictitious  parts  of  a b equal  to  the  six  actual 
parts  laid  off  on  a b ; in  other  words,  we  press  the  perspective  parallelogram  a b d b into  the 
service  of  a square  (acdb),  together  with  its  diagonal,  by  giving  to  its  defective  sides  six  ficti- 
tious parts  to  stand  for  the  six  real  parts  of  the  square.  The  sides  b d — at  being  real,  and 
terminating  in  the  point  of  sight,  are  not  affected  by  our  assumption,  but  the  diagonal  a d is, 
as  it  thereby  represents  the  diagonal  of  six  such  parallelograms  united;  and  of  course,  instead 
of  a distance  of  three  parts  at  the  point  h,  it  gives  six  times  that,  and  all  that  we  require  as  a 
fictitious  point  of  distance,  fully  equivalent,  for  all  practical  purposes,  to  the  real  point  of  dis- 
tance g,  and  yet  within  the  frame  of  the  picture.  Let  us,  as  in  the  next  example,  for  the  sake, 
of  clearer  illustration,  reduce  our  distance  to  twelve  parts.  The  result  will  be  precisely  the 


150 


PERSPECTIVE. 


\ 


same.  In  this  case  we  take  two  parts  measured  on  the  line  of  the  horizon,  and  make  that  our 

fictitious  distance  — two  multiplied  by  the  number  of  fictitious  parts 
on  our  base  line  proving  an  equivalent  to  twelve  real  parts,  or  the 

true  distance.  And  thus  we 
have  in  the  perspective  of 
the  parallelogram  and  its  di- 
agonal an  efficient  representation  of  the  square,  not  only  in  the 
verification  of  our  point  of  distance,  but,  working  from  a fictitious  point  of  distance,  to  which  it 
either  directs  or  from  which  it  originates,  we  are  enabled  to  produce  not  only  the  perspective 


of  a square,  but  all  its  parts  and  divisions,  as  perfectly  as  if  we  had  the  real  point  of  distance 
measured  on  the  line  of  the  horizon  — and  with  the  advantage  of  having  all  our  operations  within 
the  limits  of  the  picture. 


67.  Again,  if  we  desire  to  increase,  to  any  degree,  the  perspective  depth  or  plane  of  our 

— picture,  it  is  even  easier  to  do  so  by  this  process;  for  the  fines 

drawn  to  the  fictitious  point  are  shorter  and  more  definite  in  their 


\ 


PERSPECTIVE. 


1 01 


intersection  with  those  terminating  in  the  point  of  sight  or  vanishing  point,  than  those  seeking  a 
more  lengthened  termination  in  the  real  point  of  distance.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  as  a 
distance  equal  to  three  times  the  width  of  the  picture  brings  the  fictitious  point  at  3 on  its 
very  edge,  a greater  distance  — say  five  times  the  width  thereof,  or  of  thirty  instead  of  eighteen 
parts  — must  necessarily  carry  such  point  heyond  the  field  of  the  picture.  To  obviate  this,  and 
still  secure  a working  point  for  our  distance  within  the  limits  of  the  picture,  we  have  but  to 
double  the  scale  on  the  line  of  the  horizon,  and  also,  the  fictitious  scale  on  the  base  line  to  harmo- 
nize therewith,  as  shown  in  the  concluding  example  on  the  last  page,  by  which  the  point  5 gives 
as  certain  a point  of  operation  in  connexion  with  the  doubled  proportions  on  the  base  line.  A 
distance  of  five  times  the  width  of  the  picture,  however  excessive  it  may  appear,  may  in  many 
cases  be  required,  wherein  this  method  will  be  found  of  great  value.  Suppose  a picture  twelve 
feet  wide,  destined  to  occupy  a position  which  rendered  it  essential  that  its  perspective  should 
be  calculated  for  a distance  of  sixty  feet : few  apartments  could  be  found  of  sufficient  extent  for 
operation  by  a veritable  point  of  such  distance  5 and  even  in  smaller  works  of  the  drawing-board 
or  easel,  the  application  of  this  method  will  be  found  to  obviate  a difficulty  constantly  encountered 
by  the  artist  and  draughtsman. 


68.  Further  to  illustrate  the  operation  of  adjustment  of  extreme  distances  of  objects  on  the 
perspective  plan : let  us  take  ten  parts  for  the  width  of  our  picture,  which  are  justly  expressed 
by  the  numerical  points  on  the  line  of  the 
horizon,  and  giving  to  those  on  the  base 
line  a fictitious  proportion  of  ten  to  each 
real  measure  5 thus,  we  have  one  hundred 
fictitious  parts  laid  off  on  the  base  line,  by 
points  of  ten  each.  Assuming  our  point  of 
distance  to  be  three  times  the  width  of  the 
picture,  that  is,  thirty  parts,  the  numerical 
point  3 on  the  line  of  the  horizon  gives  us 

f*  • • • o 1 * T 10  SO  30  40  SO  60  20  80  90  100' 

a fictitious  point  of  distance  corresponding 

to  the  fictitious  points  on  our  base  line.  Thus  we  have  the  means  of  accurately  defining  on  our  per- 
spective plan  the  length  of  the  line  a b at  any  distance  in  the  picture  we  require.  In  the  example 
before  us,  the  verification  of  the  first  four  lines  at  the  distances  of  10,  20,  30,  and  40  parts,  is 
proved  by  the  diagonals  running  out  of  the  picture  to  the  right,  which,  if  space  would  allow  for 
their  extension  to  an  intersection  of  a continuation  of  the  line  of  the  horizon,  would  be  found 


1d2 


PERSPECTIVE. 


to  terminate  and  unite  in  the  real  point  of  distance,  as  those  on  the  left  terminate  and  unite  in 
the  fictitious  point  of  distance  3 on  the  line  of  the  horizon.  Without  requiring  another  example, 
suppose  we  had,  say,  an  extensive  view,  and  we  desired  to  ascertain  the  perspective  proportions 
of  objects  extremely  remote  5 and  further,  that  instead  of  allowing  ten  real  parts  (call  them  feet 
if  you  will)  for  the  space  embraced  by  the  foreground  or  base  line,  we  make  it  one  hundred — 
thus  by  multiplying  all  our  numerical  points,  real  and  fictitious,  by  ten,  we  have  all  that  we 
desire.  If  we  have  an  accurately  laid  down  horizontal  line,  to  get  the  perpendicular  height  of 
objects,  no  matter  what  they  may  be,  at  the  distance  of  this  line,  is  an  operation  already  too 
familiar  to  need  repetition. 

69.  It  will  be  found  that  in  many  of  the  examples  given  we  have  been  forced  to  the  use  of 
a shorter  distance  of  view  than  has  been  recommended.  This  the  limits  of  our  page  have  in  a 
great  measure  compelled,  in  the  first  place  5 and  in  the  next,  by  exaggerating  or  making  the 
perspective  more  violent  than  would  be  proper  in  a picture,  the  principles  it  was  desired  to 
illustrate  may  have  been  made  more  evident. 

It  is  earnestly  desired  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  student  the  importance  of  resting 
satisfied  with  nothing  short  of  a thorough  comprehension  of  all  as  it  is  placed  before  him,  testing 
and  verifying  each  and  every  operation  for  himself.  If  less  has  been  said  and  exemplified  on  the 
subject  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the  art,  with  a more  strictly  mathematical  analysis  of 
these  principles,  it  has  been  from  the  fear,  based  upon  experience,  that  the  learner  might  either 
wear  out  his  patience  in  groping  through  geometrical  labyrinths  to  little  useful  purpose,  for  want 
of  consciousness  of  the  ends  for  which  he  labored,  or  else  break  down  in  the  very  outset,  as  many 
a one  has  done  before  him,  in  terror  of  the  long  and  cheerless  way  that  presented  itself — 
through  mysterious-looking  diagrams  and  geometrical  problems,  which  not  every  head,  if  it  has 
the  capacity,  possesses  the  resolution  to  encounter.  Indeed,  it  may  be  fairly  doubted  if  ever  yet 
any  ponderous  volume  of  perspective  complicities,  however  full  of  geometrical  learning  and 
research,  was  gone  through  in  downright  earnestness  by  the  student 5 and  if  it  may  have  been,  it 
has  been  to  comparatively  little  practical  utility.  The  study  of  perspective,  like  that  of  all  others 
connected  with  design,  is  not  to  be  gone  through  by  the  book  alone,  page  by  page,  to  its  accom- 
plishment 5 but  its  knowledge  must  be  attained  by  an  eye  rendered  susceptible  to  the  evidences 
of  the  truth  of  its  principles,  as  they  are  developed  in  nature,  and  a mind  gradually  strengthened 
to  their  investigation  and  application  in  design,  to  which  it  holds  the  place  of  an  accessory,  not 
that  of  a primary  motive.  It  comes  to  the  aid  of  the  artist  in  the  development  and  expression 
of  his  art,  as  do  many  other  branches  of  knowledge  — any  one,  or  all  of  which,  acquired  to  the 


PERSPECTIVE 


15.3 

utmost  extent  of  learning,  would  tend  but  little  to  constitute  an  artist,  independent  of  the  pri- 
mary and  mere  leading  qualifications  requisite  for  the  imitative  and  inventive  art.  As  the 
poetry  of  thought  precedes  the  measured  line  and  its  rules  of  harmonious  expression,  and  as  no 
rules  of  prosody  can  make  a poet,  or  gift  the  mind  with  power  of  expansion  to  the  bright  and 
privileged  world  of  fancy,  yet  is  their  assistance  indispensable  to  reduce  to  order  the  pictures  of 
its  gathering  or  creation. 

70.  Here  the  artist-student  of  perspective  might  perhaps  be  safely  left  to  pursue  his  course 
alone,  and  to  rely  upon  his  own  judgment  in  following  out  the  elementary  principles  of  the  art 
in  their  various  and  endless  applications,  as  all  that  remains  is  chiefly  based  upon  merely  geo- 
metrical operations.  To  meet  every  case  that  may  occur  by  an  example,  would  swell  our  work 
to  more  volumes  than  there  are  pages  at  our  disposal  ; and,  after  all,  if  such  could  be  done,  it 
would  be  scarcely  worth  the  pains,  and  its  place  upon  the  book-shelf  might  be  far  better  and 
more  usefully  occupied.  Besides,  the  artist  and  draughtsman  should  hold  the  art  in  his  mind, 
and  eye,  and  hand  — ready,  quick  as  the  thought  or  the  impression,  to  give  it  utterance  and 
expression.  To  be  thus  learned  it  is  not  necessary  to  be  for  ever  bending  over  dull  diagrams 
and  untangling  knotty  problems.  The  field  of  art  is  too  wide,  its  privileges  too  free  for  this. 
The  artist’s  best  school  is  abroad,  in  the  bright,  beautiful  world  of  nature,  for  ever  developing 
subjects  for  admiration,  and  tempting  his  imitation.  There  is  nothing  on  which  his  eye  can 
rest  that  does  not  teach  him  lessons  of  his  art,  when  once  his  perceptions  are  awakened  and 
trained  to  their  comprehension.  Endless  as  may  be  his  work  of  knowledge,  so  are  his  re- 
sources ; while  others  plod  on  a duller  way  through  life,  he  reaps  while  he  sows,  and  bright 
blossoms  mingle  their  perfume  with  the  ripened  fruit,  which  repays  his  labors  and  makes  glad 
his  toil. 

71.  In  resuming  the  consideration  of  the  geometrical  operations  of  perspective,  we  are  natu- 
rally led  back  to  the  beginning,  but  to  that  beginning  with  a degree  of  preparation  that  leaves 
little  more  to  be  required  than  mere  hints  to  assist  the  student  in  the  application  of  the  princi 
pies  of  the  art,  with  which  he  must  be  already  familiar.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that 
we  must  have  a distinct  and  definite  idea  of  the  forms  and  objects  we  desire  to  place  in  our 
picture  under  the  influence  of  the  laws  of  perspective.  We  must  consider  them  as  real  and 
tangible,  and  upon  the  basis  of  this  knowledge  we  are  enabled  perspectively  to  define  their 
positions,  proportions,  parts,  and  details.  In  many  cases  we  may  be  compelled  to  have  recourse 

to  imaginary  data  in  the  course  of  our  operations,  but  still  these  data,  governed  by  harmonious 

20 


154 


PERSPECTIVE. 


laws  are  sufficiently  reliable  for  our  purposes;  brought,  as  they  are,  in  constant  contact,  com 
parison,  and  trial,  with  self-evident  truth,  they  can  never  deviate  far  from  it  without  detection, 
and  consequently  ready  means  of  correction  are  thus  afforded. 

72.  To  place  a Point  in  Perspective.  — Although  this  is  but  the  repetition  of  an  operation 
which  has  been  repeatedly  performed  already,  it  comes  in  place,  as  the  beginning  of  our  geo- 
metrical exercises.  Here  we  have  no  other  geometrical  plan  than  an  indication  of  the  actual 


distances  of  two  given  points  ( a and  b ) from  the  base  line,  which  distances  being  carried  to  the 
base  line,  as  indicated,  and  repeated  thereon,  by  arcs,  or  measurement,  give  two  points  ( a and  b ) 
equivalent  to  the  diagonal  points  of  squares  equal  to  the  distances  of  a and  b from  the  base  line. 
Hence  the  lines  connecting  the  points  ( c and  a ) marking  the  distances  of  a and  b to  the  base 
line,  with  d,  the  point  of  sight — and  the  connexion  of  the  diagonal  points  (a  and  b ) with  c,  the 
point  of  distance  of  the  picture,  give  in  the  intersection  e the  perspective  position  of  a,  and  in  f 
that  of  b — under  the  circumstances  of  c d c,  the  fine  of  the  horizon — d,  the  point  of  sight — d c, 
the  distance  of  the  picture,  and  a c,  b a,  the  distances  of  a and  b from  the  base  line  of  the  picture. 

73.  To  place  a Line  in  Perspective — having  once  secured  its  extreme  points,  as  above, 


PERSPECTIVE. 


155 


■ - 


will  certainly  present  no  difficulty,  no  matter  in  what  direction  that  line  may  be  in  reference  to 
the  base  line  of  the  picture.  That  done,  it  will  be  as  easy  to  place  three  points  in  perspective 
as  two,  and  four  as  three  ; therefore  — 


74.  To  place  a triangle  or  irregular  figure  in  perspective,  by  merely  connecting 
such  points  thus  attained,  is  a process  equally  as  plain,  without  regard  to  the  distinction  between 
parallel  or  oblique  perspective  (48).  All  that  is  required  to  be  known  is  the  actual  position  in 
which  it  is  desired  to  place  such  figures  on  the  per- 
spective plane  in  reference  to  the  base  line.  In  this 
example  there  is  not  a single  line  of  the  figures  either 
at  right  angles  or  parallel  with  the  base  line  j hence, 
not  one  in  their  perspective  representation  seeking  a 
vanishing  point  in  the  point  of  sight,  or  running  par- 
allel with  the  base  line  and  line  of  the  horizon,  as  in 
the  numerous  instances  of  the  square  lying  parallel 
to  the  picture,  to  which  we  have  so  often  referred, 
and  which  must  be  sufficiently  familiar  to  the  student  to  render  a repetition  unnecessary ; nor 
would  it  appear  more  requisite  to  renew  our  example. 


75.  To  place  a perpendicular  line  or  figure  in  perspective,  except  to  preserve  pro- 
gression in  our  operations,  and  recall  to  mind  those  of  a similar  character  which  have  been 

previously  considered  more  at  length.  — Here,  as 
in  the  case  of  all  before  us,  we  have  no  square 

: - or  its  diagonal  expressed,  but  we  have  its  gov- 

erning  principles  throughout,  working  in  as  per- 
fect harmony  as  to  results.  With  a little  careful 
practice  and  proper  understanding  of  the  princi- 
pies  involved  in  the  few  cases  which  will  now  be  added,  in  con- 
nexion with  what  has  been  previously  said  and  exemplified,  the 
" • student  may  be  safely  considered  in  the  possession  of  the  ele- 

o ments  of  the  art,  and  he  should  learn  to  look  to  himself  for  the 

perfection  of  the  knowledge  he  may  require,  rather  than  to 
desire  that  all  should  be  prepared  for  his  hand.  In  the  field  of  art,  he  that  would  reap  must  toil, 
however  light  may  be  made  that  toil  if  entered  upon  with  a right  spirit.  He  toils  most  painfully 


156 


PERSPECTIVE. 


who  pursues  its  course  in  darkness  and  obscurity,  and  the  light  of  truth  is  surest  gained  by 
earnest  seeking. 


76.  To  place  a circle  in  perspective,  whether  as  a simple  form,  lying  flat  upon  the  per- 
spective plane,  perpendicular  to  it,  or  in  any  other  position  — or  taken  as  the  basis  of  more  solid 


forms,  such  as  the  cylinder,  cone,  etc.  — requires  to  have 
recourse  to  its  relation  to  a square,  as  best  illustrated  by 
the  examples,  and  the  working  operation  by  which  they  are 
perspectively  produced  5 the  points  of  the  contact  of  the  cir- 
cle with  those  of  the  square,  as  a b — c d— e f — g h— k— form- 
ing the  basis  upon  which  in  their  reproduction  in  the  picture 
as  ab— od— ef— gh— k,  we  can  by  their  connexion,  by  an  easy 
and  harmonious  line,  in  which  we  must  depend  upon  accu- 
racy of  the  eye  and  judgment,  as  well  as  decision  of  hand, 
attain  the  desired  end.  If  the  operation  holds  good  in  one 
case  it  will  in  another,  and  we  have  but  to  transfer  such  points  to  other  required  positions,  under 
precisely  the  same  circumstances  that  we  would  if  we  desired  merely  to  place  the  square  itself  in 


PERSPECTIVE. 


157 


perspective.  In  the  example  m,  the  operation  is  more  simple,  from  the  parallel  position  of  the 
circle  in  reference  to  the  base  line ; here  we  have  but  to  decide  upon  the  central  points,  and  the 
assistance  of  the  compasses  secures  the  circles. 

77.  To  PLACE  TWO  CIRCLES  OF  DIFFERENT  DIAMETERS,  LYING  HORIZONTALLY,  ON  A COMMON 
central  perpendicular,  is  but  a similar  process,  as  the  example  will  show.  To  carry  out  this 
operation  in  the  numerous  cases  in  which  it  is  applicable,  such  as  columns,  vases,  and  the  like, 
would  be  an  endless  undertaking ; and  the  student  can  for  himself  do  better,  by  exercising  his 


ingenuity,  than  if  he  had  placed  before  him  volumes  of 
complicated  diagrams,  which  are  better  comprehended  in 

\ j I ..•••"•  B 

working  through  the  progressive  details  of  their  operations, 
than  attempting  to  untangle  the  unavoidable  confusion  of 
A points  and  lines,  which  often  tend  more  to  distract  and  mis- 

lead than  to  elucidate.  One  result  reached  through  our  own 
earnest  seeking  is  worth  many  attained  by  merely  looking  on 
to  see  how  it  is  done.  It  becomes  our  own  when  we  have 
fairly  earned  it,  and  in  the  way  of  its  earning  we  may  have 
gathered  perhaps  more  than  its  value  in  other  useful  hints 
and  points  of  knowledge,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  lost  or  overlooked  by  us.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  give  a rule  for  the  management  of  the  semicircle,  or  any  portion  of  the 
circle  taken  separately,  as  that  which  serves  for  the  whole  must  hold  equally  good  for  a part. 
Above  we  have  an  example  of  a method  — 


] 58 


PERSPECTIVE. 


78.  To  place  a line  of  arches  in  perspective,  which  we  leave  to  the  student  without 
remark.  If  it  should  puzzle  him  a little  at  first,  it  will  be  all  the  better  for  the  exercise  of  his 
ingenuity.  There  is  no  line  therein  that  has  not  its  use  and  meaning,  and  every  principle  of  the 
art  connected  with  the  operation  has  been,  in  some  place  or  other,  already  explained. 

79.  If  attention  thus  far  has  been  almost  exclusively  directed  to  the  perspective  of  regular 
forms  and  figures,  it  is  that  its  rules  are  more  plainly  demonstrable  with  reference  to  them  than 
others  of  a more  complex  character.  As  soon  as  we  leave  right  lines,  all  the  art  can  do  for  us 
is  to  fix  certain  points,  and  we  are  left  to  our  skill  of  hand  and  judgment  for  the  rest.  In  the 
examples  of  the  circle  to  which  our  attention  has  just  been  directed,  we  could  but  secure  its 
perspective  points  with  reference  to  the  square ; and  had  it  been  an  ellipse,  oval,  or  other  more 
irregular  form,  the  art  would  have  done  as  much,  under  similar  operations,  by  the  selection  of 
such  points  of  the  line  or  figure  required  as  might  form  the  most  ready  and  secure  basis  of  its 
perspective  expression.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  fellow  the  operation  of  the  annexed  exam- 


forms  than  those  given,  and  under  different  circumstances  of  position,  distance,  etc.  In  imme- 
diate connexion  with  the  operation  of  placing  the  circle  or  any  of  its  parts  in  perspective,  we 


PERSPECTIVE. 


159 


are  led  to  its  application  in  reference  to  open  doors,  shutters,  box-lids,  and  such  like,  moving  on 
central  points  or  hinges  5 for  in  the  opening  and  shutting  of  a door  it  describes  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  arc  of  a circle,  on  which  arc,  in  connexion  with  its  central  point,  we  have  our  governing 
points.  We  must  therefore  look  to  the  circle  as  the  basis  of  our  rule  in  all  such  and  similar  cases. 


80.  To  place  an  open  door,  and  such  like,  in  perspective.  — In  reference  to  the  ex- 
ample, the  simplicity  of  this  process  will  at  once  appear,  the  perspective  plan  of  the  semicircle 
forming  the  basis  of  the  operation.  The  example,  however,  illustrates  another  point,  to  which 
reference  was  made  some  paragraphs  back  (47,  76),  as  well  as  on  other  occasions.  We  have,  in 
no  one  of  these  open  doors,  their  horizontal  lines  terminating  or  vanishing  in  the  point  of  sight, 
or  running  parallel  with  either  the  base  line  or  line  of  the  horizon 5 but  still  they  seek  on  the  line 
of  the  horizon  vanishing  points  in  harmony  with  their  position,  as  all  the  horizontal  lines  of  A find 


their  termination  or  vanishing  point  at  b,  those  of  C at  d,  and  those  of  E at  f — which  would  not 
be  the  case  were  the  three  doors  closed.  In  such  case,  those  of  C would  run  parallel  with  the 
line  of  the  horizon  and  base  of  the  picture,  while  those  of  A and  E would  necessarily  terminate  in 
the  point  of  sight.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  doors  opened  so  as  exactly  to  stand  at  right 
angles  with  the  wall  — that  is,  if  A and  E - 
were  exactly  on  the  line  a a a a — then  would 
their  horizontal  lines  be  parallel  with  the 
line  of  the  horizon  5 and  if  C were  exactly 
on  the  line  b b,  it  would  stand  in  a similar 
relation  to  the  point  of  sight  that  A and  E 
would  do  if  closed,  its  horizontal  lines  ter- 
minating in  the  point  of  sight. 


160 


PERSPECTIVE. 


81.  To  place  in  perspective  an  open  trap-door,  or  any  other  object,  in  a position  neither 
horizontal  nor  perpendicular,  is  a process  somewhat  similar  to  that  we  have  just  had  under  con- 
sideration, and  which  the  last  example  on  the  preceding  page  sufficiently  illustrates.  If  these 
doors  were  closed,  their  outlines  would  as  perfectly  harmonize  with  the  base  line  and  point  of 
sight  as  a square  or  any  other  rectangular  figure  occupying  a parallel  position  in  reference  to  the 
base  line;  but  when  opened  or  moved  from  their  horizontal  position,  the  lines  of  their  sides  (a  a— a a), 
which  still  retain  that  position,  the  one  fixed  on  a central  pivot  by  its  hinges,  and  the  other  descri- 
bing an  arc  of  a circle  about  that  centre,  alone  continue  to  harmonize  with  the  point  of  sight,  by 
seeking  a vanishing  point  therein,  or  the  base  line  by  remaining  parallel  with  it.  The  others 
(b  b— b b)  either  preserve  a parallel  with  themselves,  as  in  the  first  figure,  having  started,  as  it  were, 
in  that  relation  to  each  other  when  the  door  was  closed  (as  c c ),  while  in  the  second  figure  they 
started  from  lines  (e  e)  bearing  reference  to  a vanishing  point  derived  from  the  line  of  the  horizon 
by  virtue  of  their  horizontal  position  which  they  lose  the  moment  they  are  removed  from  it,  and 
must  necessarily  seek,  in  describing  the  semicircle,  a constantly  changing  termination  5 or,  being 
never  parallel  to  each  other  except  when  the  door  is  perpendicular,  that  is,  when  it  is  even  with 

the  vertical  line  of  the  semicircle,  they  must  necessarily,  if  extended, 
-(  come  in  contact,  and  this  point  of  contact  is  always  somewhere  on 

a vertical  line  drawn  through  the  vanishing  point  in  which  they 
terminated  when  in  a horizontal  position,  and  either  above  or 
below  the  line  of  the  horizon,  according  to  their  deviation 
from  a perpendicular.  In  the  first  example  before  us,  in 
which  the  trap-door  lies  parallel  to  the  base  line,  the 
lines  a b preserve  their  parallel  relation  to  the 

base  line,  under  all  cir- 


i 

!\  P 

\ 

\v 


cuinstances  of  their  move* 


ment  j while  in  the  second  example  it  is  placed 
obliquely,  and  consequently  these  same  lines  being  no 
longer  parallel  in  the  perspective,  seek  a vanishing  point  on  the  line  of  the  horizon  (as  a)  to  which 
point  they  terminate,  and  with  which  they  constantly  agree  in  the  movement  of  the  door,  while 


PERSPECTIVE. 


161 


the  lines  of  the  other  sides  find  their  termination  on  the  vertical  c d to  their  original  vanishing 
point  b.  Now  all  this  may  seem  to  be  a great  deal  to  say  about  a trap-door,  but  if  the  pupil 
will  give  it  his  earnest  attention,  he  will  find  in  this  and  the  previous  examples  the  solution  of 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  problems  of  perspective — one  well  worth  remembering. 


84.  To  PLACE  A PLANE,  OR  FIGURE,  WHICH  IS  NEITHER  HORIZONTAL  NOR  PERPENDICULAR, 
in  perspective. — This  has  already  been  accomplished,  in  part,  in  the  operations  just  considered: 

for,  if  we  regard  such 
planes  as  the  sides  or 
parts  of  more  solid  forms, 
we  have,  in  the  rules  by 
which  we  placed  in  per- 
spective a simple  door,  ei- 
ther moving  horizontally 
or  vertically,  the  basis  of 
unlimited  application  of 
the  process,  which  assim- 


/ / If 7 

/ 

! 

A i / ill 

/W  lv 

j 

/ / \ j\  \ 

!V\  . \ 

!/>,  • : ‘ 

ilates  and  verifies  itself  in  every  respect  with  that  which  has 
just  preceded,  as  will  be  evident  from  the  examples  annexed. 


85.  There  are  many  cases,  however,  in  which  a shorter  and  more  direct  method  may  be 
adopted  j one  in  which  we  assume  such  a solid  form  as  the  plane  we  desire  to  represent  in  a 
certain  degree  of  inclination,  may  most  naturally,  and  most  advantageously  for  our  purpose,  form 


1G2 


PERSPECTIVE. 


a part.  With  proper  judgment  in  the  selection  of  the  assumed  form,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  man- 
ageable it  may  be  made.  A certain  and  decided  figure  once  secured,  the  lines  of  its  various 
sides,  sections,  diagonals,  angles,  etc.,  give  all  that  can  possibly  be  required  as  a basis.  We  have 
but  to  place  such  original  figure  in  perspective,  to  acquire  safe  grounds  of  operation.  If  these 
inclined  planes  are  intended  as  the  basis  of  round  or  irregular  forms,  we  must  then  proceed  as  in 
cases  already  explained,  where  such  forms  rested  either  on  the  horizontal  or  perpendicular  plan 
or  plane.  Before  leaving  these  examples,  it  is  desirable  to  call  attention  to  the  influence  of  the 
line  of  the  horizon  and  vertical  line  drawn  through  the  point  of  sight,  and  their  similarity  of 
service  with  regard  to  the  vanishing  points  of  inclined  planes — that  is,  planes  inclined  from  either 
a horizontal  or  perpendicular  position. 

84.  It  must  be  evident  that  the  mere  opening  or  closing  of  a door  in  a picture  can  not  affect 
either  the  point  of  sight , line  of  the  horizon , and  point  of  distance  j and  further,  that  the  point  of 
sight  has  no  other  influence  on  the  vanishing  point  of  the  lines  expressing  their  oblique  position 
than  its  government  of  the  line  of  the  horizon  in  the  one  case,  and  vertical  in  the  other,  on  which 
they  find  their  concentration,  more  or  less  remote  from  the  point  of  sight  in  proportion  to  their 
obliquity.  Hence,  the  vanishing  points  of  all  objects  and  lines  lying  obliquely — that  is,  neither 
parallel  with,  nor  at  right  angles  to  the  imaginary  line  from  the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the  point  of 
sight — may  be  considered  as  independent  of  the  point  of  sight  j however  the  point  of  their  con- 
centration or  vanishing  point  must  find  its  place  upon  the  line  of  the  horizon,  or  vertical,  as  the 
case  may  be.  This,  however,  is  only  when  such  inclined  lines  or  planes  are  based  upon  a hori- 
zontal or  vertical  plane:  in  others,  occupying,  as  it  were,  a doubly  oblique  position — that  is, 
having  no  coincident  agreement  with  either  a parallel  or  vertical — neither  the  line  of  the  horizon 
nor  vertical  supplies  a point  of  concentration  for  their  vanishing  points,  but  others  must  be  sought 
in  harmony  with  their  position,  and  these  are  obtained  by  the  operation  of  similar  principles. 

85.  So  far  as  the  principles  of  the  art  of  perspective  are  concerned,  the  vertical  passing  through 
the  point  of  sight  may  be  said  to  correspond  with  the  line  of  the  horizon  5 and  many  cases  may 
occur  in  practice  in  which  the  vertical  may  serve  even  better  than  the  line  of  the  horizon  jin 
which,  instead  of  the  base,  we  use  the  perpendicular  side  of  the  picture  as  its  parallel.  To  illus- 
trate this,  we  have  but  to  look  at  an  example  of  perspective  by  turning  it  so  as  to  bring  its  sides 
in  the  relation  of  a base  line — that  is,  change  them  from  perpendiculars  to  horizontals — to  see 
not  only  the  similarity  but  unity  of  principle  in  consideration.  If,  for  example,  we  have  doors, 
window-shutters,  oblique  projections,  and  the  like,  to  represent  on  the  wall  or  side  of  a house, 


PERSPECTIVE. 


1G3 


moving  or  inclining,  like  trap-doors,  etc.,  on  a level  floor,  we  have  but  to  treat  them  as  if  they 
were  on  a level,  by  substituting  the  perpendicular  for  the  base  line  or  edge  of  our  picture,  and  the 
vertical  for  the  line  of  the  horizon,  in  accordance  therewith. 


86.  To  place  a flight  of  steps  in  perspective,  as  well  as  figures  in  their  just  proportion 
on  such,  will  prove  an  easy  operation,  as  it  requires  but  the  exercise  and  application  of  the  most 
simple  rules  of  the  art.  In  the  example  now  presented,  we  have  a double  scale  of  proportions — 


the  one  (ab)  for  the  figures,  the  other  (c  d)  for  the  steps  — the  one  based  upon  and  agreeing 
with  the  other.  It  matters  not  which  we  first  assume  ; whether,  in  the  outset,  we  adapt  the  scale 
for  the  figures  to  that  of  the  steps,  or  the  steps  to  the  figures,  or  even  which  figure  or  which  step 
we  start  with  in  our  operation,  the  result  will  be  the  same  — the  advantage  in  commencing  with 
the  most  prominent  points  only  consisting  in  the  readier  attainment  of  accuracy  by  reducing  from 
a larger  rather  than  increasing  from  a less  scale.  It  will  be  seen, by  reference  to  the  example,  that 
the  lines  a— a give  the  height  of  the  first  step  at  the  perspective  distance  in  the  picture  of  the  first 
figure ; and  moreover,  b c being  equal  to  ab,  the  measure  of  the  figure  gives  on  c d at  the  point  a 


164 


PERSPECTIVE. 


an  equivalent  to  its  height,  equal  to  that  of  about  nine  steps,  as  indicated  by  the  numerical  points 
on  c d.  Without  risking  confusion  in  the  example  by  the  introduction  of  more  numerical  points 
and  lettered  references,  we  will  suppose  the  process  of  producing  the  first  four  steps  and  the  first 
figure  evident — their  proportions  agreeing  as  well  in  relation  to  each  other  as  to  the  figure  — such 
lines  as  by  reason  of  their  position  naturally  run  parallel  with  the  base  line  and  others  seeking  a 
concentration  in  e , the  point  of  sight.  The  lines  that,  in  reference  to  the  first  four  steps,  terminate 
in  the  point  of  sight,  define  the  depth  of  each  step,  as  well  as  the  width  of  the  whole  flight  (1,  2, 3, 4)5 
but  in  those  of  the  next  (&  to  14),  such  give  the  direction,  but  not  the  depth,  either  of  the  individual 
steps,  or  that  of  the  whole  flight — horizontal  lines  necessarily  performing  that  service.  As,  in  the 
first,  the  lines  (k,  k,  k,  k)  which  express  the  inclination  of  the  flight,  and  at  the  same  time  its  width 
considered  as  a plane,  are  parallel  to  one  another  by  reason  of  the  parallel  position  of  the  base  of 
such  inclined  plane  with  the  base  line  of  the  picture,  so  must  those  in  the  second  instance  preserve 
an  equal  harmony  with  the  base  of  their  inclinations,  whose  lines  (e  f— g h),  terminating  or  vanish- 
ing in  the  point  of  sight  (e),  fix  their  concentration  in  a point  (f)  vertical  to  and  distant  from  it, 
according  to  the  degree  of  inclination  of  the  plane.  It  will  be  found  as  easy  on  such  premises  to 
define  and  perspectively  to  represent  the  second  as  the  first  flight.  Our  measures  are  still  derived 
from  one  common  scale  (cd);  in  the  second  case  we  operate  with  lines  running  to  the  point  of 
sight,  precisely  as  we  did  with  parallel  lines  in  the  first  instance  j and,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
parallel  lines  as  we  did  with  those  vanishing  in  the  point  of  sight — the  parallel  lines  of  inclination 
( t.  k.  k.  k ) being  supplied  by  others  terminating  in  the  point  f. 

Carefully  noting  these  observations  and  their  application,  with  the  assistance  of  the  example, 
the  whole  operation  will  be  found  more  simple  than  may  at  first  sight  appear.  — As  to  the  other 
figures : we  know  that  our  average  height  for  the  first  is  about  equal  to  that  of  nine  steps ; there- 
fore the  position  of  a figure  standing  on  the  fifth  step  must  give  for  its  height,  on  the  scale  of  our 
measurement  of  the  steps  ( c d ),  considered  as  a perpendicular  from  the  base  line,  about  fourteen 
parts ; m m therefore  secures  a measured  perpendicular  on  the  fifth  step  equal  to  the  height  of 
nine  — and  hence,  by  the  Hhes  m n f— m n f,  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  perspective  diminution 
and  just  proportion  of  any  figure  or  object  on  these  steps,  as  well  for  a railing  or  other  accessory 
that  may  be  desired.  With  regard  to  the  steps  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the  example,  it 
will  be  remarked  that  by  the  nearer  approach  of  the  vanishing  point  g to  the  vanishing  point  e of 
the  lines  of  their  plane,  they  are  deeper  than  those  just  considered  (5  to  14),  the  angle  of  inclination 
(g  qp)  being  less  than  that  of  f qp,  and  its  base  (r  P— 0 q)  longer;  for  if  these  steps  were  of  the 
same  depth  as  those  from  5 to  14,  their  base  would  be  as  a t p q,  and  f qp  their  perspective  angle 
of  inclination. 


PERSPECTIVE. 


165 


87.  As  to  the  actual  depth  of  each  flight,  measured  on  its  base,  or  that  of  each  individual  step : 
in  the  first  case  it  is  plain  enough  at  sight,  and  perspectively  considered  it  may  be  equally  so  with 
reference  to  the  others.  In  the  one  case  we  have  a positive  measure  by  reason  of  the  parallel 
relation  of  their  profile  plan  with  the  base  line ; and  in  the  other  we  have  but  to  recur  to  the 
diagonal  of  the  square,  in  connexion  with  the  point  of  distance,  for  equally  as  certain  if  not  as 
ready  premises.  Let  us  take  the  last-considered  flight  of  steps  in  illustration.  The  height  of 
these  steps  we  already  know,  for  it  was  assumed  in  the  beginning  as  our  original  scale,  or  taken 
in  reference  to  the  figure ; if  not,  it  can  easily  be  obtained  by  a process  too  simple  and  familiar  to 
require  repetition.  The  height  being  laid  down  on  the  length,  it  is  found  that  the  step  is  seven 
times  as  long  as  it  is  high.  Now  suppose,  it  is  desired  that 
its  depth  should  be  equal  to  four  times  its  height  (let  us 
say  four  times,  as  it  gives  more  working  room  ; were  it 
more  or  less,  a like  operation  would  still  serve  as  well) : 
aided  by  the  points  of  sight  and  distance,  the  square  abed 
is  easily  obtained,  and  thus  having  a c and  a b perspectively 
equal  to  c b— a a,  gives  as  certain  a measure  of  four  times  the 
height  of  the  step  as  c b.  We  have  now  the  base  of  the 
block  forming  the  step;  we  know  its  height;  therefore,  to 
place  the  whole  in  just  perspective  is  readily  accomplished. 

Moreover,  by  the  direction  of  a diagonal  ( c f),  is  secured  a vanishing  point  on  the  vertical,  which 
gives  the  accurately-defined  plane  of  inclination  of  any  number  of  such  steps ; or,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  is  desired  to  assume  the  base  (c  g h t)  of  the  whole  flight  as  our  premises,  by  its  divis- 
ions and  proportions  like  results  may  be  attained. 

88.  To  PLACE  CIRCULAR,  CURVED,  OR  OTHER  THAN  RECTILINEAR-SHAPED  STEPS,  IN  PERSPEC- 
TIVE, is  effected  by  the  application  of  rules  and  methods  already  given,  with  reference  to  such 
like  forms  in  their  relation  to  rectilinear  shapes. 

89.  To  place  in  perspective  a winding  or  spiral  FLIGHT  of  steps,  requires  an  opera- 
tion more  complex  and  laborious  than  difficult — one  involving  a perfect  intelligence  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  art,  and  one  of  the  most  profitable  exercises  that  can  possibly  try  the  knowledge 
and  ingenuity  of  the  student.  Complex  and  incomplete  as  may  appear  the  example  on  the 
next  page,  without  other  explanation,  it  will  be  found  perfectly  intelligible,  to  those  who  have 
fairly  investigated  and  practically  verified  for  themselves  the  operations  of  the  rules  of  the  art. 


166 


PERSPECTIVE. 


90.  However  incomplete  a work  on  perspective  may  appear,  without  its  rules  in  reference  to 
shadows,  the  artist-student,  whose  eye  now  looks  on  nature  alive  to  the  just  perception  of  the 
influences  of  the  art,  who  can  counterfeit  the  reality  in  conformity  with  its  laws,  can  scarcely 
need  a recipe  for  its  shadows ; falling,  as  they  do,  in  masses,  more  or  less  defined,  of  position  and 
form,  modified  and  influenced  in  their  shapes  by  the  recipient  object  on  which  they  are  thrown, 
and  those  by  whose  intervention  with  the  source  of  light  they  are  produced ; perspective  pictures 
traced,  as  it  were,  on  perspective  pictures,  and  mutually  developing  each  other  in  perfect  harmony 
with  the  great  and  leading  truths  of  the  art ; doubling  the  resources  of  design,  in  the  means  of  its 
expression,  and  placing  in  the  intelligence  and  hand  of  the  artist  a power  as  unlimited  as  the 
mind’s  imaginings. 

91.  To  place  objects  REFLECTED  in  perspective,  needs  but  one  general  rule,  requiring  the 
reflection  to  be  treated  as  a reality.  Consider  it,  thus,  an  inverted  duplicate,  not  of  the  picture, 


PERSPECTIVE. 


167 


but  of  the  reality,  and  the  way  is  plain.  To  illustrate  and  verify  this,  place  a mirror  level  on  a 
table,  and  upon  it  any  object  that  first  comes  to  hand,  a book,  a pen,  a letter,  anything  — the  per- 
spective direction  of  the  lines  of  the  reflection  will  be  found  perfectly  to 

\ harmonize  with  its  original,  and  its  image  perfectly  inverted.  Look 

\s  / ; 

\.s  i again  to  the  mirror  on  the  mantelpiece  or  wall,  and  remark  how  per- 

fectly the  perspective  of  the  objects  presented  by  it 
responds  to  the  originals.  Should  the  glass  be  not 
perpendicular,  an  irregularity,  as  it  were  a general 
upsetting  of  everything,  will  be  perceived ; for  thus 
the  perpendicular  plane  of  its  picture  is  thrown  out 
of  harmony  with  nature,  and  all  its  lines  follow.  The 
same  would  be  the  case  if  the  mirror  were  placed  flat, 
but  not  perfectly  level,  with  regard  to  all  objects  re- 
taining their  horizontal  and  perpendicular  character,  but  the  reflected  images  of  those  resting  on 
its  surface  would  still  harmonize  with  their  originals,  in  the  degree  of  inclination  of  its  plane,  etc. 

Fortunately,  in  our  most  frequent  occasions  to 
represent  reflections,  they  are  given  back  by  a 
mirror,  ever  most  true  of  all  other  objects  to  the 
level — Nature’s  mirror  — not  duplicating  her 
perspective  pictures,  as  presented  to  the  eye,  as 
if  by  a mere  inverted  tracing  of  their  outlines, 
but  with  all  the  truth  of  an  actually  inverted 
image  of  the  reality.  Such  objects  as  rise  or 
occupy  a position  perpendicularly  in  reference 
to  the  mirror-like  surface  of  the  tranquil  water, 
preserve  their  real  proportions.  Thus,  the  cliff  that  rises  in  an  unbroken  perpendicular  above  its 
base,  throws  its  reflection  to  its  full  height  5 while  that  of  the  receding  hill  or  distant  mountain, 

although  much  higher,  may 
scarcely  be  seen  at  all,  though 
rising  far  above  it  — the  bold- 
ness of  the  perpendicular  cliff 
perspectively  covering  the  in- 
clined plane.  If  the  point  of  observation  could  be  placed  exactly  on  a level  with  the  water,  then 
and  then  only,  would  the  real  picture  be  repeated  $ but  the  slightest  elevation  of  the  point  of  view, 


PERSPECTIVE 


16S 


and  consequently  of  the  line  of  the  horizon,  above  the  level  of  the  water,  affects  the  general  out- 
line of  everything  reflected  that  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  water’s  edge,  as  more  fully  demonstrated 


in  the  annexed  profiles,  showing  the  perspective  relations  of  the  various  elevations.  In  objects 
projecting  over  the  water,  as  the  beam  in  the  example,  the  reflection  will  of  course  be  naturally 
longer  than  the  receding  lines  of  the  original.  An  arch  may  repeat  its  outer  semicircle  as  per- 
fectly in  its  reflection  as  it  really  is,  and  so  may  be  also  its  more  receding  outline,  but  the  archway 

In  the  original  we  see  less  of  its  internal  form  than  we  do  in 
the  reflection,  for  the  elevation  of  our  point  of  view  enables  us 
to  see  farther  into  the  reflection  than  within  the  arch  itself. 

Although  brought  to  a conclusion  of  this  chapter  without 
having  covered,  as  it  may  seem,  the  whole  ground  of  perspec- 
tive, the  artist-student  will  find  therein,  if  not  a recipe  for  all 
his  requirements,  the  elements  and  principles  of  the  art  suffi- 
ciently explained  to  enable  him,  upon  their  basis,  to  meet  any 
difficulty  that  may  be  presented  in  the  course  of  his  practical 
operations.  The  fear  of  big  books  and  elaborate  treatises  drive 
many  a one  from  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  most  of  all,  those 
devoted  to  the  arts  of  design  j whose  restless  spirits  unwillingly 
bear  the  control  of  any  established  routine ; unapt  to  delve  in 
the  mine  of  abstruse  investigations,  they  hasten  to  conclusions ; 
and,  most  fortunately,  all  their  requirements  of  knowledge  are 
progressive.  Discovery  and  possession  beget  wants,  and  he  who  lives  the  longest,  and  knows  the 
most,  has  more  still  to  learn.  In  the  next  chapter  it  will  come  in  place  in  some  degree  to  review 
the  subject  of  perspective  as  to  its  practical  application  in  drawing  and  sketching  from  nature, 
when  an  opportunity  will  be  presented  of  introducing  at  least  more  generally  pleasing  subjects 
for  illustration  than  mere  diagrams. 


itself  is  not  perfectly  duplicated. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

'God  has  diffused  "beauty — and  art 
has  combined  it."  — Houbsaye. 


A STUDY 


A N D 


_ - A SKETCH 

are  far  from  being  identical  in 
character  or  purpose.  A Sketch 

is  but  a graphic  memorandum — an  expedient ; a Study , the  more  faithful  record  of  well-digested 

investigation.  However  well  a sketch  may  serve  to  retain  a transitory  impression,  and,  to  some 

22  169 


170 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


extent,  give  it  intelligible  expression,  its  practical  value  and  service  rest  in  the  reserve  of  higher 
capacity,  only  attainable  by  severer  study.  The  one,  therefore,  leading  more  directly  to  that  great 
highway  of  art,  by  which  excellence  is  most  surely  reached,  and  capacity  in  the  other  more  cer- 
tainly, advantageously,  and  naturally,  following  as  a result,  leave  little  doubt  upon  which  the 
greater  reliance  should  be  placed  as  a beginning. 

2.  However  true  it  is,  that  a certain  degree  of  aptness  in  sketching  may  be  often  found  pre- 
ceding more  substantial  acquirements,  especially  in  cases  of  active  sensibility  to  artistic  impulse 
(not  unfrequently  thus  first  developing  the  inclination  of  genius),  it  can  lead  of  itself  but  a very 
little  way  to  excellence.  This  faculty,  therefore,  should  never  be  overrated  as  a reliance,  nor 
suffered  to  mislead  to  habits  of  superficial  observation,  or  carelessness  of  manner,  to  which  it  has 
a tendency,  unless  restrained  and  directed  by  judicious  cultivation. 

3.  The  value  of  careful  study,  and  drawing  from  nature,  consists,  not  so  much  in  the  produc- 
tion of  an  elaborate  work,  as  in  the  familiarity  thereby  obtained  with  the  object  of  imitation.  It 
is  this  familiarity  with  the  truths  of  nature,  stored  upon  the  memory  in  continued  accessions,  that 
forms  in  time  the  reliable  capital  of  the  artist,  upon  which  he  may  draw  with  confidence  in  all 
emergencies.  It  is  this  strength  that  fortifies  him,  not  only  in  the  truthful  imitation  of  realities 
before  him,  and  in  their  absence  directs  to  available  expedients;  but,  quickening  and  sustaining 
the  imagination,  emboldens  its  flight  — secures  it  against  the  errors  of  inconsistency,  and  renders 
the  language  of  art  as  easy  and  fluent  as  if  traced  by  a poetic  or  historic  pen.  Herein  lies  the 
commonly-considered  mysterious  power  which  guides  a master’s  hand,  impressed  upon  all  that 
emanates  from  it  — from  the  faintest  impromptu  sketch  to  the  most  finished  work;  while  he,  who 
holds  no  such  reserve,  may  attempt  in  vain  to  disguise  the  doubt  and  feebleness  which  embarrass 
all  his  efforts. 

4.  It  should  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  in  the  importance  attached  to  the  closer  and  more 
minute  study  of  nature,  the  practice  of  sketching  should  be  disregarded  or  neglected.  Capacity 
in  each  may  be  most  happily  cultivated  together.  It  is  by  the  habit  of  sketching  that  the  eye  and 
mind  are  made  sensitive,  while  more  careful  study  secures  such  advantages  to  available  results. 
Both  should  be  trained  together,  in  quickness  of  perception,  in  aptness  to  the  discovery  of  beauty 
and  effectiveness  in  nature,  and  in  forming  conclusions  with  rapidity  and  decision:  while  the  hand 
receives  an  equal  training  in  obedience  to  their  direction,  following  and  recording  their  impulse 
almost  instinctively ; wasting  no  time  or  effort  in  trembling  indecision,  but  aiming  so  directly  at 


FROM  NATURE. 


171 


(ruth,  although  often  by  lines,  strangely  few,  and  dashed  off  apparently  at  random,  yet  leaving  little 
doubt  or  uncertainty  in  their  meaning. 

5.  It  is  a common  error  with  beginners  to  imagine  that  facility  in  sketching  may  be  gained 
by  the  imitation  or  copying  of  sketches.  Many  are  the  injurious  influences  of  this  delusion.  The 
apparent  ease  with  which  a seeming  carelessness  of  line  or  hand  may  be  imitated,  may  be  tempt- 
ing to  the  gratification  of  a small  measure  of  ambition,  but  should  not  divert  from  higher  purposes 
than  the  mere  counterfeiting  of  even  a master’s  hand.  If  it  were  possible  to  gain,  by  such  success- 
ful imitation,  the  impulse,  knowledge,  and  certainty,  by  which  it  was  guided,  the  effort  would  be 
worthy  of  the  utmost  pains  that  could  be  bestowed  5 but  emulation  of  the  power  by  which  such 
masterly  works  have  been  produced  must  be  sought  in  capacity  beyond  the  imitation  of  individual 
manner  or  peculiarity,  however  excellent,  and  least  of  all  in  such  as  are  developed  in  sketches. 
This  comes  with  the  strength  acquired  by  earnest  study  and  familiarity  with  nature,  in  readiness 
of  hand  in  the  expression  of  truth,  thus  gradually  but  certainly  secured,  and  in  independence  of 
method  or  material  to  which  it  may  be  restricted. 

6.  However  severe  may  appear  the  ordeal  to  the  attainment  of  this  desirable  end,  it  will  prove 
the  surest  as  well  as  the  easiest.  The  learner,  therefore,  should  start  and  persevere  in  the  deter- 
mination of  pursuing  his  way  with  steady  devotion  of  purpose,  leaving  as  little  as  possible  unse- 
cured as  he  advances.  The  work  before  him  is  no  business  of  an  hour,  and  there  is  no  time  to 
spare  for  insignificant  trifling.  The  field  of  labor  is  the  wide  world  of  Nature  — her  beautiful 
truths  the  lessons  to  be  learned  by  heart.  Once  fairly  within  her  school,  Art  awakens  to  a life  of 
sympathy  with  its  teacher  that  lasts  for  ever.  It  should  be  ever  borne  in  mind,  that  there  is  no 
object  upon  which  the  learner  can  direct  his  study,  or  practise  his  hand,  whence  may  not  ue 
derived  wholesome  lessons,  worth  remembering,  and  that  it  is  far  better  to  accomplish  one  careful, 
well-studied,  and  accurately-finished  drawing  a month,  than  a hundred  loose  sketches  a day.  Let 
it  he  clearly  understood  that  we  do  not  mean,  by  “ finished  drawings,”  mere  perfection  of  mechani- 
cal elaboration,  minute  idling  with  textures,  or  ostentatious  display  of  labor,  but  accuracy  of  line 
and  truthfulness  of  expression,  be  the  means  or  method  employed  what  they  may.  In  the  presence 
and  palpability  of  error  in  these  important  points,  no  drawing,  especially  in  the  implied  considera- 
tion of  its  being  a study,  can  be  said  to  be  finished.  Even  when  we  may  imagine  our  efforts  to 
have  reached  their  utmost  in  the  attainment  of  this  degree  of  perfection,  careful  revisal  and  com- 
parison of  our  work  with  the  model  may  lead  to  the  detection  of  faults,  the  correction  of  which  it 
can  never  be  too  late  to  effect  5 nor  should  the  fear  of  “ spoiling  our  work”  ever  deter  from  the 


172  SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 

attempt.  Such  records  of  error,  and  evidences  of  research  for  truth,  may,  indeed,  be  worth  as 
much  as  the  results  of  more  successful  labor.  Teachings  of  experience,  thus  brought  home,  are, 
of  all  others,  the  most  wholesome  in  their  influence,  longest  and  most  profitably  remembered  ; and 
the  master,  which  the  learner  may  thus  secure  to  himself,  by  severe  self-investigation  and  trial,  will 
ever  prove  the  most  reliable. 

7.  Brief  as  may  have  been  the  hints  which  have  been  given,  in  former  chapters,  with  regard  to 
drawing  the  figure,  as  well  as  more  simple  objects  — if  tliey  have  been  practically  applied,  with  that 
care  and  thought  so  often  and  earnestly  urged,  there  remains  but  little  more  to  add,  beyond  offer- 
ing such  assistance  as  may  appear  best  calculated  to  render  that  knowledge  effective  in  bolder 
attempts.  Although  he  who  can  drawr  the  most  simple  object  perfectly,  possesses  all  the  secret, 
worth  knowing,  of  drawing  anything;  to  combine  and  arrange  — to  reduce  to  harmonious  unity 
the  various  parts  and  elements  of  a work  of  art  — is  yet  to  be  acquired,  and  only  by  study,  trial, 
and  practice.  Not  that  sort  of  hand-mill  practice  which  is  satisfied  with  mere  mechanical  employ- 
ment ; but  that  which  carries  with  it  a constant  spirit  of  investigation,  overcomes  all  difficulty,  and 
by  which  the  eye  and  mind  are  enlivened  to  the  perception  of  truth,  and  the  hand  trained  to 
instinctive  readiness  and  decision  in  its  expression. 

8.  It  might  appear  that  in  drawing  from  nature,  with  the  object  before  us,  no  more  could  be 
required  than  to  copy  what  we  see.  This  would  be  true,  if  all  really  exhibited  in  the  model  were 
sufficiently  evident  to  unassisted  observation  for  its  faithful  delineation.  The  eye  may  be  a safe 
and  faithful  guide,  as  well  as  critic,  to  a certain  extent ; but,  like  too  many  critics,  however  apt 
in  the  detection  of  error,  it  is  not  always  equally  ready  and  reliable  in  supplying  the  means  of  dis- 
covering causes,  or  directing  to  available  remedy.  The  most  unlearned  in  art  may  be  able  to 
discover  that  there  is  something  wrong  in  its  representations,  but  it  is  rarely  that  other  than  the 
educated  can  identify  that  something,  detect  its  cause,  and  suggest  means  of  correction.  Ev- 
ery one  is  familiar  with  the  divisions  and  markings  of  the  face  of  a watch ; but  it  requires  at  least 
some  knowledge  of  the  principles  by  which  the  circumference  of  the  circle  may  be  accurately 
divided,  to  delineate  it  with  precision.  Every  one  knows  that  a hand  has  four  fingers  and  a 
thumb ; but,  to  draw  the  hand  with  anatomical  accuracy,  to  express  its  outward  appearance  cor- 
rectly, requires  a knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  its  internal  structure  — of  the  bones  that 
form  its  framework,  and  define  its  proportions — of  the  muscles  and  tendons  that  direct  its  action, 
and  of  the  effect  produced  upon  its  exterior  by  such  internal  arrangement.  A similar  knowledge  of 
the  whole  human  figure,  extending  to  all  animated  nature,  and  descending  to  the  most  insignificant 


FROM  NATURE. 


173 


work  of  creation,  is  equally  important,  whenever  their  faithful  representation  is  attempted.  To 
draw  the  humblest  weed  or  flower  with  care  and  fidelity,  at  least  some  knowledge  of  its  qualities 
and  conformation  must  be  possessed,  beyond  that  presented  to  unenlightened  observation.  This 
comes  as  no  insignificant  part  of  the  business,  purpose,  and  meaning,  in  an  artistic  sense,  of  study 
of  nature , and  marks  the  distinction  between  the  tame  and  spiritless  attempt  at  merely  copying 
all  that  the  eye,  unaided  by  superior  intelligence,  discovers,  and  the  more  decided  and  truthful 
expression  which  alone  can  satisfy  it,  when  thus  sustained.  It  is  a familiar  truth  to  every  one, 
that  in  all  pictorial  representations,  as  objects  are  intended  to  be  expressed  in  more  or  less  remote 
positions  from  the  point  of  observation,  they  should  be  reduced  more  or  less  in  size.  The  eye  of 
the  most  common  observer  readily  receives  and  acknowledges  the  truthfulness  of  a happy  adjust- 
ment of  these  proportions,  and  is  impressed  as  readily  with  error  therein  ; but  it  is  only  by  the 
laws  and  principles  of  perspective  that  they  can  be  justly  regulated.  Hence,  it  is  evident  that,  to 
judge  correctly  of  objects  in  nature,  as  they  really  appear,  the  eye  requires  assistance  ; and,  there- 
fore, such  assistance  should  be  sought  early,  assiduously,  and  continually.  If  the  learner  starts 
rightly,  he  will  go  on  safely.  Every  investigating  look  bestowed  on  nature,  every  line  he  traces, 
will  bear  him  onward.  Happily,  it  is  not  requisite,  in  doing  this,  that  his  progress,  in  perhaps  more 
pleasing  and  less  laborious  ways  of  art,  should  be  interrupted  or  impeded.  He  may,  and  should, 
learn  and  gather  as  he  goes  — ever  mindful  that  the  gathering  of  knowledge  in  the  pursuit  of 
artistic  excellence  is  endless,  and  neither  weary  of  the  way  nor  recoil  from  the  pains  or  labor  by 
which  it  may  be  gained. 

9.  It  should  not  be  understood,  by  what  has  been  said,  that  no  one  should  venture  to  draw  the 
dial-face  of  a watch  without  having  previously  secured  the  thorough  qualifications  of  a geome- 
trician; that,  to  delineate  a hand,  the  anatomical  knowledge  of  a surgeon  is  prerequisite  — a 
plant,  a perfect  comprehension  of  its  botanical  characteristics;  or  that  every  line  and  portion 
of  a picture  should  be  laid  down  and  measured  by  perspective  calculations.  W ere  such  the 
extent  of  requirements  by  which  truth  in  artistic  imitation  could  alone  be  attainable,  no  measure 
of  a single  life,  nor  amount  of  capacity  of  endurance,  would  be  sufficient  to  accomplish  more 
than  a beginning.  Our  purpose  is  to  impress  the  student  with  the  importance  of  starting  in  the 
surest,  and  therefore,  as  will  be  found  by  trial,  the  easiest  way ; to  show  the  value  of  study  and 
investigation ; to  point  to  the  only  reliable  resources  for  discovery  and  correction  of  error,  and  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  avoided ; to  disabuse  his  mind  of  every  idea  that  “ well  enough” 
should  ever  do  in  art ; and  that  every  effort  should  command  his  utmost  exertion.  Thus  everv 
attempt  and  every  achievement  will  be  advanced,  nearer  and  nearer  a degree  of  perfection, 


-1 


174  SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 

which,  although  it  may  not  be  reached,  is  nevertheless  approachable,  and  that  by  a sure  and  well- 
tried  course,  the  study  of  nature. 

10.  Many  are  the  pernicious  consequences  to  be  dreaded  by  injudiciously  overburdening  the 
Art-Student  with  preparatory  studies ; and,  not  least  among  them,  the  diversion  of  a pursuit,  that 
should  ever  bear  with  it  lasting  love  and  willing  devotion,  into  one  of  toil,  and  perhaps  fatal  dis- 
gust. In  all  cases  where  excellence  has  ever  been  attained  in  art,  love  for  it  has  been  the  first, 
continued,  and  abiding  impulse.  To  cherish  this  love,  therefore,  should  be  ever  an  important 
consideration,  whether  its  impulse  lead  to  the  devotion  of  life  to  its  indulgence,  or  we  seek  its 
consolations  as  relaxation  from  more  toilsome  ways  of  life,  or  its  purifying  influence  on  our  hearts 
and  thoughts  by  the  cultivation  of  that  privileged  intimacy  with  nature  to  which  it  leads.  The 
progressive  attainments  of  the  Art-Student,  nevertheless,  require  a certain  degree  of  practical 
preparation  for  their  advantageous  acquirement.  Where  a want  is  felt,  its  supply  becomes  at 
once  an  enduring  benefit.  When  we  are  sensible  of  the  nature  and  amount  of  our  deficiencies, 
we  seek  more  earnestly  and  profitably  their  supply  than  if  made  in  anticipation.  Were  art  wor- 
thier of  no  higher  consideration  than  a mere  trade  ; were  there  not  so  much  better  and  more 
profitable  work  to  be  done  5 could  labor  expended  in  preparatory  studies  be  secured  as  a safe 
investment,  to  produce  return  in  figures  against  figures  — all  this  might  appear  but  provident  and 
proper.  But,  as  this  can  not  be  5 as  no  one,  in  the  beginning,  can  either  comprehend  the  amount 
or  nature  of  the  knowledge  he  may  require  5 as  there  is  no  cool-headed  calculation  to  be  made 
in  the  matter,  beyond  the  certainty  of  encounter  with  difficulties  5 as  these  difficulties  will  be 
found  rarely,  if  ever,  beyond  the  ready  strength  of  the  learner  to  meet  and  overcome  as  encoun- 
tered 5 as  thus  the  way  is  made  one  of  delightful  progression,  for  ever  hopeful,  and  onward,  and 
sure  — one  well  tried  and  verified  by  results  — it  may  be  pursued  with  confidence,  at  least  until  a 
better  is  discovered. 

11.  There  have  been  many  “who,  by  their  genius,  grasping  in  its  might  its  aims  with  a 
seeming  independence  of  will  over  all  ways  and  means  of  art,  have  produced  wonders  in  their  way, 
which  seem  to  defy  all  trace  of  the  means  by  which  they  were  produced  5”  but  let  us  rather  profit  by 
the  fate  of  those  who  have  vainly  and  often  fatally  endeavored  to  follow  such  eagle-flights,  and  place 
our  confidence  on  surer  guidance.  It  is  very  certain  that  no  one  was  ever  born  with  genius  that 
could  grasp  instinctively,  and  at  once,  the  first  principles  of  art.  All  have  learned,  and  all  must 
learn,  to  draw.  In  this  is  involved  all  of  art  that  teaching  can  impart.  It  is  the  letter  and 
grammar  of  its  language,  without  which  genius  is  but  an  ignited  exhalation,  that  may  excite 


FROM  NATURE. 


m 


momentary  wonder,  but  soon  burns  out  for  want  of  that  cherishing  which  education  alone  can 
supply. 

12.  There  may  be  something  incomprehensible  to  the  uninitiated  in  the  freedom  and  certainty 
with  which  an  experienced  artist  expresses  himselt — whether  it  be  the  imitation  of  a model 
before  him,  or  a creation  of  the  imagination  ; but  the  mystery  ceases  when  we  know  the  me- 
thodical process  by  which  it  is  effected.  Guided  by  secured  knowledge  5 practically  familiar  with 
all  the  expedients  of  his  art;  seeing  clearly  what  he  has  to  do,  and  knowing  well  how  to  do  it; 
losing  no  time  in  hesitation,  or  feeling,  as  it  were,  his  way — his  work,  from  first  to  last,  from  a 
few  apparently  random  lines  to  the  utmost  degree  of  finish,  is  always  masterly.  Those  who 
would  emulate  such  skill,  must  learn  as  he  has  learned. 

13.  It  matters  not  what  may  be  the  limits  of  excellence  which  the  aspirant  to  knowledge  and 
practical  skill  in  design  may  prescribe  to  himself.  That  which  is  available  to  the  more  restrained 
and  less  ambitious  pretensions  of  the  amateur,  is  equally  and  indeed  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
professional  Artist.  The  one  great  purpose,  paramount  to  all  others,  in  the  beginning,  should  be, 
to  learn  to  draw.  Hence  is  derived  the  faculty  of  just  observation  and  appreciation  of  Nature, 
as  a faithful  teacher  and  reliable  resource,  leading  to  an  uncompromising  love  of  her  truths  that 
constitutes  the  soul  of  art,  thereby  maturing  to  our  possession  a standard  of  excellence  upon 
which  we  may  safely  rely,  in  profiting  by  the  productions  of  others,  as  well  as  the  experience  of 
our  own  failures  or  successes. 

14.  In  insisting  upon  the  importance  of  learning  to  draw,  more  may  be  meant  than  may 
appear  in  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term.  Capacity  for  drawing  means  more  than  the 
power  of  producing  a linear  representation.  The  sculptor  draws , when  he  models  the  plastic 
clay  into  imitative  or  ideal  creations.  The  painter  draws , when  he  disposes  his  pigments  with 
like  impulse.  Still  further,  the  stalwart  smith  draws , when  he  shapes  the  heated  metal  into  a 
given  or  required  form.  Thus  upward  might  we  trace  the  application  of  the  word,  in  its  true 
sense,  until  we  reached  the  brightest  creation  of  poetry  or  thought  that  art  ever  yet  embodied,  or 
ever  will  — all  resting  and  governed  in  their  practical  application  by  either  mental  or  palpable 
linear  operations.  It  is  by  lines  that  the  sculptor  preserves  his  proportions,  disposes  his  masses, 
and  assimilates  his  accessories  into  harmonious  unity.  Equally  so  does  the  painter,  in  the  dispo- 
sition of  light  and  shadow,  in  the  regulation  of  his  masses  of  color,  even  in  the  adjustment  of  their 
balances,  reliefs,  and  effects ; which  should  be  as  subservient  to  the  preservation  of  accuracy  of 


176 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


form,  and  consistency  of  action  and  expression,  in  a picture,  as  in  a statue  or  linear  representation. 
The  rudest  cross-road  smith  never  shaped  or  fitted  a horse-shoe  without  the  aid  of  governing  lines 
of  direction  and  comparison,  and  without  being  as  much  a draughtsman,  in  his  way,  to  do  so  suc- 
cessfully, as  ever  sculptor  or  painter  in  theirs — however  applied  in  an  art  that,  if  admitted  among 
the  Fine-Arts,  might  extend  the  family  connexion  to  a limit  alarming  to  the  unnecessary  if  not 
reprehensible  fastidiousness  of  the  sisters.  If  the  connecting  links  could  be  brought  only  a little 
closer  together,  and  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  design  could  be  more  generally  and  generously 
diffused  among  the  inferior  arts,  they,  with  mankind,  would  be  all  the  better  for  it,  and  the  more 
dainty -fingered  community  of  the  muses  the  gainers  thereby  — if  in  no  other  respect,  in  a more 
general  appreciation  and  acceptation  of  their  real  and  practical  value. 

15.  Among  the  many  errors  of  beginners,  there  is  none  more  common  than  a disposition  to 
find  fault  with  anything  rather  than  themselves  — especially  with  their  materials.  Chalks,  pencils, 
paper,  colors,  canvas,  bear  in  their  turn  its  brunt  5 and  even  their  models,  be  they  the  best  in  the 
world,  are  never  what  they  should  be.  If  they  go  into  an  artist’s  studio,  they  shower  their  ques- 
tions upon  him  without  mercy:  “Where  did  you  get  it?” — “Can  I get  some  like  it?” — “If  I 
only  had  it,  I should  require  no  more !”  — when  they  may  have  the  same  in  use,  if  not  abuse,  every 
day.  Then,  “Where  did  you  get  the  model  of  that  head?  that  hand  ? that  foot?”  Give  them 
the  same,  and  most  probably  as  deplorably  deficient  will  be  their  work  with  it.  He  who  has  his 
perceptions  of  truth  keenly  alive,  his  mind  and  capacity  properly  trained,  can  find  good  materials 
and  models  anywhere.  It  is  this  that  constitutes,  in  an  important  point,  the  independence  of  the 
educated  artist.  It  is  this  that  expands  his  mind  to  look  beyond  the  personal  and  temporary  in 
Nature  to  her  permanent  and  universal  characteristics  5 which  brings  him  to  feel  rightly,  to  reason 
clearly  5 which  fortifies  him  in  analyzing  and  deciding  upon  possibilities,  in  distinguishing  degrees, 
resemblances,  and  differences  5 which  imbues  his  mind  with  a sensibility  to  the  perception  of 
beauty,  a judgment  refining  all  that  passes  within  its  range,  and  a love  for  truth,  in  all  and  every 
thing,  which  to  art  is  its  religion.  It  matters  not  what  means  he  may  select  for  the  expression 
of  an  idea : an  humble  bit  of  charcoal  and  a scrap  of  wrapping-paper  may  be  thus  employed,  in 
exhibiting  the  higher  attributes  of  true  art,  more  effectually  than  the  choicest  materials  of  a London 
or  Parisian  magazine  would  ever  help  an  inferior  and  uneducated  hand  to  achieve. 

16.  Another  and  still  more  common  mistake  with  beginners  is  to  be  in  too  great  a hurry,  and 
not  to  bestow  sufficient  consideration  and  study  upon  their  subject  previous  to  a commencement 
of  their  work.  Instead  of  first  making  themselves  familiar  with  its  motive,  or  action,  mentally, 


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177 


and  then  slightly  indicating  its  leading  points  and  lines,  they  dash  headlong  to  work,  and  most 
probably  in  a very  few  minutes  get  their  drawing  into  a hopeless  tangle  of  confusion  and  inaccu- 
racy. Then  comes  the  vexatious  work  of  erasure  and  correction  5 and,  worse  still,  error  is  added 
to  error,  until  failure  and  self-disgust  end  the  effort,  with  that  consequent  dread  of  a repetition  of 
the  trial  so  fatal  in  its  consequences.  Thus  have  we  seen,  for  want  of  proper  forethought,  and 
the  practical  knowledge  obtainable  by  a well-regulated  course  of  training,  many,  possessing  in 
other  respects  most  substantial  artistic  qualifications,  driven  almost  to  hopeless  desperation,  profit- 
lessly  groping  in  darkness,  when  the  light  that  might  be  had  so  easily  would  have  insured  success. 
For  want  of  method,  this  little  knowledge,  and  practical  experience,  it  has  been  with  pain 
that  we  have  often  observed  them  labor  in  error.  Thus  have  we  seen  a figure,  started  in  the 
middle  of  a sheet,  run  off,  through  every  variety  of  distortion,  into  a corner  : another,  thus,  cut  off 
and  crowded  into  its  limits  at  bottom,  while  the  head  had  abundant  space  to  spare  at  top  for  its 

due  proportions:  a landscape  with  no  room  for  its  foreground  — a foreground  with  no  room  for 

the  landscape,  and,  if  brought  in  at  all,  out  of  all  proportion,  and  in  violation  of  every  law  of  truth 
and  nature : streams  running  up  hill : and  any  number  of  false  vanishing-points,  governed  by 

equally  false  horizons  and  points  of  distance.  A tenth  part  of  the  time  wasted  in  vexatious  at- 

tempts to  amend  and  correct  errors  thus  committed,  devoted  to  careful  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject, aided  by  proper  intelligence,  would  not  only  save  all  such  misapplied  labor,  but  insure  the 
most  easy  and  gratifying  results.  Even  in  sketches,  where  rapidity  of  execution  may  be  unavoid- 
able, in  order  to  secure  as  rapidly  as  possible  some  transient  effect  or  impression,  or  where  the 
artist  may  be  restricted,  as  to  time,  in  producing  a memorandum,  such  errors  will  rarely  occur 
with  one  trained  to  habits  of  accuracy.  In  everything  that  takes  the  higher  rank  of  a study , 
they  are  inexcusable. 

17.  The  errors  to  which  we  have  particularly  alluded  lie  at  the  root  of  many  others,  which 
are  the  prevailing  causes  of  difficulty  almost  universally  experienced  by  beginners  in  sketching, 
drawing,  and  painting,  from  nature.  We  constantly  hear  the  complaint  from  them  that  “their 
models  will  not  hold  still.”  The  gentlest  breeze  that  stirs  the  leaves  of  a tree  or  plant,  or  drives 
too  rapidly  the  flying  mists  over  a morning  sky,  or  that  rolls  the  storm-clouds  in  piles  of  grandeur, 
annoys  and  puts  them  out.  For  them  the  glowing  tints  of  evening  pass  away  unrecorded  and 
unappropriated,  save  perhaps  by  a faint  and  profitless  momentary  impression.  The  playful  loveli 
ness  of  infancy,  the  riper  flush  and  elastic  gracefulness  of  beauty,  the  breathing  life  and  animation 
of  Nature,  are  all  to  them  forbidden  themes.  It  is  not  so  with  him  who  encounters  Nature  pre 

paicd,  in  the  strength  of  his  art,  to  receive  and  appropriate  her  suggestions.  He  requires  her  not 

23 


i 7S 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


to  sit  to  him  as  a hired  model,  but  takes  her  as  he  finds  her,  in  her  own  freedom,  and  brings  her 
home  with  him,  as  it  were,  to  his  studio,  to  come  forth  reproduced  and  perpetuated  by  his  art. 

18.  The  purposes  of  a study  in  design,  involving  so  much  more  than  the  mere  production  of  a 
recognisable  drawing  or  representation  — as  the  advantages  to  be  derived  therefrom  are  in  pro- 
portion to  the  knowledge,  theoretical  as  well  as  practical,  to  be  gained  thereby  — neither  time 
nor  pains  thus  bestowed  can  ever  be  misapplied,  nor  will  they  be  regretted.  The  utmost  effort 
should  always  be  exerted  to  secure  the  greatest  accuracy  in  all  respects,  even  to  the  elaboration 
of  the  minutest  details. 

19.  It  is  false  to  suppose  that  the  study  and  imitation  of  minutise  in  nature,  in  the  beginning, 
has  by  any  means  a tendency  to  warp  the  mind,  or  to  contract  the  hand  into  habits  of  littleness. 
The  history  of  the  career  of  most,  if  not  of  all,  who  have  reached  high  attainment  in  Art,  bears 
evidence  to  Ihe  contrary;  and  their  progress,  from  laborious  minuteness  to  grandeur,  may  be 
traced  with  edifying  interest.  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  many  others, 
might  be  named  as  instances.  The  drawings  and  studies,  still  in  existence,  of  these  men,  as  well 
as  their  greater  works,  are,  many  of  them,  marvels  of  elaboration  in  their  way.  The  early  pic- 
tures of  Titian  and  the  founders  of  the  Venetian  school  are  equally  marked  by  the  most  careful 
regard  to  details ; and  the  evidences  of  perfect  knowledge  of  their  value  and  masterly  command 
of  them  as  expedients,  thus  gained,  are  as  clearly  discoverable  in  their  bolder  and  later  works. 
Thus  reviewing  the  whole  field  of  excellence  in  artistic  achievement,  the  happy  influence  of  a 
close  and  scrutinizing  study  of  nature  may  be  traced. 

20.  u It  would  appear  almost  incomprehensible,”  to  use  the  words  of  a great  historian  of  art, 
“ that  the  excellence  of  the  great  masters  of  art  should  have  been  so  rarely  rivalled,  with  all  the 
superior  means  and  resources  of  intelligence  that  we  possess,  and  the  examples  they  have  left  to  us ; 
and  that  a knowledge  of  the  path  has  not  been  sufficient  in  itself  to  enable  enlightened  spirits  to 
run  the  same  career  with  success.”  The  question  suggests  itself,  how  far  we  may  have  looked  too 
earnestly  to  the  end  rather  than  considered  the  means  of  its  attainment;  and,  in  seeking  by- 
roads and  shorter  paths,  may  have  lost  more  ground  than  we  have  gained  by  leaving  the  well- 
tried  highway.  That  too  much  theoretical  quackery  in  teaching  may  have  had  much  to  do 
with  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted.  It  is  true  that  these  men,  in  almost  all  cases,  received  instruc- 
tion from  masters ; but  it  was  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  always  directed  to  the  acquirement  of 
practical  skill,  rather  than  to  the  discovery  of  contrivance.  The  pupil  was  the  companion  and, 


FROM  NATURE. 


179 


generally,  assistant  of  the  master  from  the  beginning.  There  were  no  long  and  wearying  pre- 
paratory studies  exacted  of  him.  He  was  led  at  once  to  results  measured  to  his  capacity.  His 
strength  was  tried,  his  weakness  assisted.  The  aid  he  received  was  derived  from  the  experience 
of  the  master.  All  that  was  to  be  done,  he  did  himself.  Artists  were  the  leaders  and  exemplifiers 
of  the  capacity  of  their  art.  The  student  was  set  to  work  — as,  in  the  honest  sincerity  of  our 
convictions,  he  should  be  now  — to  learn  to  draw.  He  that  can  not  draw  a straight  line,  the 
simplest,  easiest,  and  most  comprehensible,  has  certainly  much  to  learn,  and  should  begin  with  it. 
He  that  can,  has  already  made  no  inconsiderable  advancement.  The  mystery  is  developed;  the 
next  step  must  be  onward,  and  onward  safely,  surely,  and  successfully.  Books  and  theories  are 
all  well  enough  in  good  time.  There  has  scarcely  ever  been  anything  said  or  written  in  relation 
to  art  that  may  not  be  listened  to  or  read  to  advantage,  when  sufficient  practical  knowledge  has 
been  secured  to  strengthen  the  judgment  in  forming  just  conclusions;  but,  to  the  inexperienced, 
they  are  often  not  only  embarrassing,  but  in  a measure  profitless. 

21.  The  materials  commonly  employed  in  drawing,  and  studying  from  nature,  are  so  numerous 
and  varied,  and  so  well  known,  that  it  would  seem  scarcely  necessary  to  say  more  than  that  the 
learner  should  select  such  as  may  be  best  adapted  to  his  purpose.  To  this  end,  that  which  will 
most  perfectly  realize  the  faithful  representation  of  his  subject,  rather  than  that  which  offers  the 
temptation  of  expedition,  should  be  considered.  Our  decided  preference  for  the  Pen,  over  all 
other  instruments,  would  incline  us  to  recommend  its  employment  on  all  occasions,  when  practi- 
cable. There  is  nothing  within  the  requirement  of  a study,  with  the  exception  of  color,  that  may 
not  be  realized  by  it.  The  uncompromising  character  of  its  lines  is  the  surest  safeguard  against 
the  numerous  vices  and  errors  common  to  learners,  as  well  as  corrective  of  habits  of  carelessness, 
and  looseness  of  manner,  which  the  pencil  and  Indian-rubber  are  apt  to  induce.  True  it  may  be, 
that  a pen-and-ink  drawing  may  not  look  quite  so  fair  to  ordinary  judgments  as  if  it  were  done 
in  crayon  or  pencil,  stumped  and  tortured  until  “you  can’t  see  the  marks.”  But  it  is  very  certain 
that  he  who  can  produce  one  such,  to  the  degree  of  perfection  of  which  the  pen  is  capable,  has 
learned  more  in  its  execution,  and  more  fully  realized  the  advantages  of  a study , in  all  respects, 
than  could  be  obtained  by  any  other  more  rapid  process  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  He  who 
is  habituated  to  the  use  of  the  pen,  and  in  whose  hand  it  is  obedient,  will  never  be  at  a loss  with 
any  instrument  he  may  employ.  Faithful,  however,  as  a servant,  it  is  an  exacting  master,  and 
no  ordinary  degree  of  trial,  or  amount  of  perseverance  and  courage,  may  be  required  to  meet  its 
exactions.  It  is  just  the  kind  of  master  that  the  Art-Student  should  secure  to  himself.  Uncom- 
promising in  error,  severe  in  its  requirements,  it  neither  flatters  nor  deceives,  and  repays  in  tenfold 
measure  all  the  pains  and  labor  it  enjoins. 


180 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


We  would  not,  however,  by  any  means  insist  that  those  who  lack  the  courage  and  perseve- 
rance which  the  use  of  the  pen  may  require,  should  be  denied  indulgence  with  less-exacting 
instruments.  We  have  only  to  say,  take  the  pen,  as  the  best  calculated,  in  our  opinion,  to  make 
you  a good  draughtsman.  Sooner  than  you  should  take  nothing,  take  anything  you  please. 
The  variety  of  instruments,  methods,  and  materials,  from  which  to  choose,  is  sufficiently  ample 
to  meet  the  most  fastidious  or  even  capricious  requirement.  First,  there  is  the  Black-lead  Pencil, 
of  different  degrees  of  hardness  and  depth  of  tint.  Then,  there  is  the  long-established  Conte,  or 
French  crayon,  which  may  be  employed  as  a pencil,  or  applied  with  a stump,  made  of  leather, 
paper,  or  cork;  Tinted  crayons,  covered  with  paper,  reed,  or  wood,  which  serve  with  much  effect 

for  memoranda  of  color,  light  and  shadow,  etc.  Ja- 
panned boxes  of  Water-Colors,  either  in  dry  or  moist 
cakes,  are  much  esteemed  by  sketchers,  and  are  found 
very  convenient.  They  may  be  held  on  the  thumb  of 
the  left  hand,  as  a palette;  while  in  the  same  hand 
may  be  also  held,  on  an  emergency,  a card  of  Bristol- 
board,  or  stout  paper,  to  receive  the  sketch,  leaving  the  right  free.  Of  Paper , we  may  have  every 
variety  of  tint  and  texture,  either  mounted  in  blocks,  or,  better  still  for  the  sketcher,  if  cut  into 
cards  of  a convenient  size.  There  are,  also,  the  French  Sketching-boards , prepared  of  variour 
tints,  even  with  skies  and  suggestive  effects  ready  laid  in.  They  are  so  prepared  as  to  present  an 
agreeable  working  surface  for  either  pencil,  crayon,  or  stump ; and,  at  the  same  time,  sharp  lights 
and  touches  may  be  recovered,  by  scraping  or  rubbing  up  the  under  preparation.  On  these,  colored 
crayons  may  be  employed  with  much  effect. 

Paper  is  generally  in  a condition  to  work  on  when  purchased.  A little  practical  experience 
will  direct  in  selection.  For  the  studio,  and  careful  out-door  drawings,  it  is  better  that  it  should 
be  stretched  on  light  drawing-boards. 

To  stretch  paper  on  an  ordinary  drawing-board,  it  should  be  damped  with  a wet  cloth  or 
sponge,  on  both  sides,  with  as  little  friction  as  possible.  Let  it  remain  for  a few  minutes,  that  the 
water  may  be  thoroughly  absorbed;  which  may  be  assisted,  by  rolling  it  up,  and  laying  it  aside, 
for  a short  time,  in  a situation  not  exposed  to  heat  or  air.  Have  ready  some  strong  paste,  glue, 
or  gum-arabic,  thoroughly  dissolved  in  water;  the  last  is  most  convenient,  as  it  may  be  kept, 
always  at  hand,  in  powder,  and  prepared  in  a few  moments.  Lay  the  damp  paper  on  the  board, 
and  run  a border  of  either  of  these  adhesives  evenly  around  it,  with  a brush,  to  the  width  of  a 
quarter  to  half  an  inch,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  size  of  the  sheet.  Carefully  turn  the  paper 
over,  and  lay  it  evenly  on  the  board,  taking  care  that  it  adheres  firmly  on  the  edges ; place  it,  face 


FROM  NATURE. 


181 


to  the  wall,  to  dry  slowly,  and  you  will  have,  to  repay  the  little  trouble  it  has  cost,  a tempting 

surface  for  your  best  effort.  Several  sheets  may  be  thus  mounted  on  

one  board  at  the  same  time,  by  cutting  each  one  a little  larger  than 

another,  so  as  to  leave  a margin  for  the  glue  on  each,  say,  of  one 

third  of  an  inch  all  around.  After  being  damped,  as  directed,  lay 

them  down  evenly,  one  over  the  other,  so  that  each  sheet  may  have  a — 

sufficient  margin  exposed  to  receive  the  glue,  over  all  of  which  it  may  be  passed  at  once.  Be 

particularly  careful  that  all  the  sheets  are  of  an  equal  degree  of  dampness,  and  that  their  adhesion 

to  the  board  is  certain.  Over  all  place  a damp,  not  wet,  cloth  5 and,  when  the  whole  becomes 

thoroughly  dry,  they  will  be  found  as  serviceable  as  if  mounted  singly. 

Drawing-boards  may  be  bought  of  every  variety  of  contrivance ; but,  after  all,  there  has 
been  little  improvement,  as  far  as  practical  value  is  to  be  considered,  from  the  simple,  well- 
seasoned,  old-fashioned  board. 

Paper,  put  up  in  what  are  called  “ Solid  Sketching-blocks ,”  containing  a number  of  sheets 
secured  together  by  the  edges,  and  bound  up  as  a portfolio,  will  be  found  convenient  for  pen, 
pencil,  and  crayon  sketches  and  drawings : they  are  not,  however,  always  reliable  for  water-tints. 

For  charcoal,  crayon,  and  washed  drawings,  particularly  those  on  a large  scale,  commonly 
called  “ Cartoons^  the  paper  may  be  stretched  in  the  manner  directed  by  substituting  a straining- 
frame  and  canvas  cloth  for  the  drawing-board.  Paper  of  a delicate  gray,  or  drab  half-tint,  is  gen- 
erally preferred  in  such  cases.  Formerly  it  was  necessary  to  paste  several  sheets  of  paper  together 
for  large  cartoons  5 but  we  can  now  procure  it  of  any  required  length,  and  five  or  six  feet  wide. 
Although  tinted  paper  in  many  cases  may  be  the  best  to  employ,  white  may  be  often  used  with 
great  advantage,  by  rubbing  it  over  carefully  with  a preparation  of  scraped  crayon  and  pumace- 
powder,  both  very  fine,  with  a pellet  of  cotton-wool,  or  some  such  substance,  until  a flat  and  even 
tint,  of  the  desired  depth,  is  obtained.  On  this  the  crayon  will  be  found  to  take  readily,  and  the 
fullest  amount  of  force  of  which  it  is  capable  may  be  obtained,  while  by  a judicious  employment 
of  points,  or  pencils,  of  stale  bread,  or,  still  better,  of  the  recently-invented  combination  of  Indian- 
rubber  and  putnace,  the  white  paper  may  be  either  entirely  recovered  for  the  highest  lights,  or  in 
gradations,  with  admirable  effect.  This  method  will  be  found  to  work  better,  if  a faint  but  care- 
ful outline  has  been  secured,  by  the  pen,  on  the  white  paper,  previous  to  the  application  of  the 
half-tint. 

To  suit  the  convenience  of  the  amateur,  more  than  to  supply  any  absolute  necessity  of  the 
artist  — who  soon  learns,  in  the  more  absorbing  impulses  of  his  art,  to  hold  such  matters  in  very 
partial  estimation  — the  shops  afford  every  variety  of  artists’  fixtures  that  can  be  well  imagined. 


1S2 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


The  readiness  of  the  age,  in  the  invention  of  labor-saving  contrivances,  has  surfeited  art  with 
gimcrackeries  in  many  ways  far  more  injurious  to  its  interests  than  by  supplying  it  liberally,  as  it 
has  done,  with  tools  and  materials.  These  may  have  often  the  good  effect  of  inciting  trial,  and  in 
the  end  leading  to  the  surer  means  of  reliance.  Thus,  the  drawing  which  may  have  been  pro- 
duced upon  the  most  nicely-contrived  board 
and  desk,  folding  up  so  cunningly  and  con- 
veniently, capable  of  being  elevated  or  de- 
pressed at  will — an  ornament  even  to  the 
parlor-table  — compared  against  the  one  that 
a bit  of  plank  and  a couple  of  books  have  served  as  well,  may  develop  a secret,  worth  knowing,  to 
more  than  two  rivals  in  the  art. 

22.  After  all  that  has  been  said  upon  the  subject,  and  earnestly  as  we  have  endeavored  to 
impress  the  learner  with  an  understanding  of  the  nature,  requirement,  and  value,  of  Studies, 
many  may  feel  disappointed  that  more  definite  and  practical  directions  have  not  been  given  ; that 
no  novelties,  in  the  way  of  easy  methods,  have  been  suggested,  to  relieve  the  exaction  of  exertion 
on  their  part ; that  still,  as  ever,  such  exertion  has  been  insisted  upon,  as  the  only  means  by  which 
excellence  is  attainable.  To  expect  to  learn  the  ways  of  art  by  the  mere  reading  of  a book,  is  to 
reckon  upon  an  illusion.  All  that  verbal  instruction  can  do  is  to  indicate  a course  to  be  pursued ; 
to  afford  the  learner  the  benefit  of  the  experience  of  others:  the  rest  must  be  achieved  by  the 
exertion  of  his  own  intelligence  and  hand.  There  is  scarcely  a page,  preceding  this,  that  does  not 
bear  in  some  way  upon  the  subject  of  study  of  nature.  To  repeat  what  has  been  already  said 
would  be  paying  a poor  compliment  to  those  who  have  given  proper  attention  thereto ; and  such 
as  have  not,  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  derive  benefit  therefrom,  at  a period  when,  it  is  to  be 
presumed,  the  learner  has  passed  the  ordeal  of  elementary  study,  and  is  qualified  to  assume  the 
position  of  an  artist,  and  fully  prepared  for  the  comprehension  of  all  that  has  been  said  with  regard 
to  Studies,  as  well  as  that  which  may  follow  in  relation  to  Sketches. 

23.  The  leading  requisite  in  sketching  is  to  produce  the  nearest  approach  to  intelligible  ex- 
pression by  the  most  simple  and  direct  means  — to  strike  at  once  the  motive  and  most  prominent 
features  of  a subject,  and  to  express  them  with  certainty  and  decision.  How  little  will  suffice 
to  do  this  is  often  surprising. 

It  will  be  seen,  that,  in  the  expression  of  action  in  figures,  the  skeleton  gives,  at  once,  the 
most  marked  and  simple  lines  that  can  possibly  be  employed.  Cover  it  with  muscles,  or  draperv, 


FROM  NATURE. 


183 


as  we  may,  the  key  to  the  expression  of  its  motive  lies  there,  however  faintly  it  may  be  indicated. 


These  examples,  simple  as  they  may  be,  will  be  sufficient  to  explain  our  meaning,  which  the 
learner  can  further  and  profitably  exemplify  for  himself ; observing,  that  the  skeleton  gives  but 


general  action,  and  proportions,  or  rather  divisions.  For  individuality  of  character  and  expression 
he  must  be  aided  by  the  model,  or  the  store  of  observation  and  study,  which  the  memory,  or,  to 
use  another  term,  the  imagination,  may  supply. 

Among  the  many  advantages  of  designing  upon 
the  basis  of  the  skeleton,  there  is  one  of  much 
practical  value.  The  parts  of  a figure,  which 
may  be  covered  by  the  general  outline,  or  out 
of  sight,  by  reason  of  its  intervention,  or  by 


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% 

that  of  other  figures,  or  objects,  falling  in  their  just  positions,  and  according  with  its  action  and 
proportions,  leaves  no  uncertainty  in  defining  the  position  of  as  much  of  such  parts  as  may  he  seen. 
This,  some  of  the  examples  just  given,  small  as  they  are,  will  sufficiently  show.  There  never 
should  be  a doubt  as  to  the  disposition  of  any  part  of  a figure,  whether  seen  or  not. 

24.  It  is  a profitable  exercise,  after  having  drawn  a figure  in  one  view,  to  reverse  it,  as  if  seen 
from  the  other  side,  without  changing  either  its  action  or  general  character  5 and  even  to  endeavor 
to  make  views  of  it  from  various  points.  How  much  more  easily  this  may  be  done  than  may  be  at 
first  imagined,  a few  careful  practical  experiments  will  prove.  He  who  can,  from  an  impression 
on  his  mind,  or  slight  suggestion  of  the  action  of  a figure,  express  it  in  any  point  of  view,  without 
a model,  has  certainly  passed  no  insignificant  period  of  advancement  toward  the  highest  privilege 
and  capacity  of  an  artist.  It  is  by  no  means  to  be  understood  that  we  would  convey  an  idea  that 
there  are  no  other  means  by  which  the  action  or  motive  of  a figure  may  be  expressed  5 nor  that, 
in  all  cases,  a preliminary  indication  of  the  skeleton  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
very  certain  that,  whatever  be  the  visible  lines  employed,  they  should  in  all  respects  accord  with 
it.  Unless  the  artist  have  a distinct  comprehension  of  its  general  and  governing  action  and  bear- 
ing on  the  outline,  as  well  in  regulating  its  proportions  as  in  directing  its  action  — unless  he  can 
distinctly  recognise  and  be  able  to  define  it,  both  in  the  model  and  in  his  design  — his  efforts  must 
be  always  feeble  and  experimental.  He  may  make  occasional  lucky  hits  5 but  he  who  trusts  to 
chance  for  success  in  art,  plays  but  an  uncertain  game,  creditless  at  best,  even  though  he  may 
sometimes  win. 

25.  As  the  skeleton  is  to  the  living  figure,  so  in  their  practical  application,  in  an  artistic  sense, 
are  their  skeletons  to  inanimate  objects.  A landscape  may  have  its  skeleton,  so  far  as  such  may 
be  available  to  the  sketcher  — a tree  — a building  — anything.  For,  although  correctness  of  outline 
may  be  the  ultimate  object,  the  surest  way  to  secure  it  is  by  means  of  its  skeleton,  or  main  lines 
of  construction. 


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26.  Whatever  degree  of  reliance,  however,  may  be  placed  upon  their  skeletons,  as  the  basis 
of  delineating  the  proportions  and  action  of  objects,  individuality  of  character  and  sentiment  are 
more  effectively  and  intelligibly  expressed  by  outline.  In  the  sketches  of  skilful  artists,  the  power 
of  a few  apparently  unstudied  lines  and  touches  seems  sometimes  almost  magical ; and  the  student 
may  profitably  trace  therein  the  evidences  of  superior  knowledge,  whence  such  simple  means 
derive  their  efficiency. 


BY  RAPHAEL. 


188 


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GUIDO 


REMBRANDT 


V ' 1 


189 


iJ-ERGHEU, 


FROM  NATURE. 


192 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


FROM  NATURE 


193 


27.  Not  only  the  general  effect  of  a subject,  but  much  of  its  character  and  action,  may  be  often 
rapidly  and  happily  expressed  by  simple  indications  of  its  masses  of  light  and  shadow — and  this, 
too,  with  an  apparent  disregard  to  precision  of  outline  or  detail,  which,  in  the  evidence  of  masterly 
and  successful  direction  of  purpose,  and  unaffected  simplicity  of  means  employed,  leave  no  require- 
ment of  apology  for  deficiency  in  these  respects.  An  effort  of  art  which  accomplishes  all  that  ii 
evidently  attempts,  may  well  deserve  exemption  from  critical  censure. 


25 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


191 


28.  In  the  application  of  this  method  of  sketching  by  masses,  tinted  paper  will  be  generally 
found  to  be  most  serviceable.  On  such,  not  only  the  pen,  crayon,  and  black-lead  pencil,  may  be 
employed,  but  a further  advantage  may  be  gained,  not  only  in  the  way  of  expedition  of  execution, 
but  also  in  effectiveness,  by  the  additional  use  of  white,  either  chalk  or  liquid  white  (called  Chi- 
nese, or  constant  white),  which  will  flow  from  the  pen,  or  may  be  touched,  or  washed  on,  with  a 
camel’s-hair  pencil. 

29.  In  drawing  on  tinted  paper,  if  the  original  tint  of  the  paper  be  sufficient  to  bear  out  effect- 
ively touches  or  gradations  of  light,  white  chalk,  or  constant  white,  may  be  advantageously  em- 
ployed. Or,  in  either  case,  whether  the  paper  be  white  or  tinted,  the  general  tint  may  be  increased 
over  the  whole,  or  in  parts,  by  means  of  a stump,  a bit  of  rag  or  soft  paper,  a pellet  of  cotton,  or 
even  the  finger,  charged  with  pencil  or  crayon  dust,  and  the  lights  may  be  recovered  with  Indian- 
rubber,  etc.,  or  by  the  application  of  liquid  white.  This  may  be  done,  either  upon  the  basis  of  a 
pen-and-ink  or  other  firm  indication  of  the  composition  of  the  subject  5 or,  the  general  effect  of 
light  and  shade  may  be  first  secured,  and  thereon  the  required  force  and  finish  may  be  given.  Or, 
all  the  various  expedients  which  practice  may  suggest  may  be  advantageously  employed  together 
in  securing  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  truth  of  which  the  circumstances  of  the  slightest 
memorandum,  sketch,  or  more  finished  work,  may  allow. 

30.  The  advantageous  employment  of  tinted  papers  is  not  only  available  in  sketching,  but 
also  in  the  most  finished  drawings  and  studies.  For  many  considerations  they  may  be  preferable 
in  all  cases,  where  color  is  not  a principal  object.  In  drawing  from  plaster-casts,  and  in  academic 
studies,  they  are  almost  universally  adopted.  The  prevailing  tint  should  correspond  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  the  half-tint  of  the  subject,  leaving  the  gradations  of  the  shadows  to  be  expressed  by 
the  pencil,  crayon,  pen,  etc.,  and  the  lighter  parts  to  be  worked  out  with  white ; the  latter  to  be 
used  sparingly,  and  generally  to'  be  applied  as  a completing  operation. 


FROM  NATURE. 


19/5 


31.  It  not  unfrequently  may  occur  that  the  sketcher,  with  all  his  forethought,  may  not  be 
prepared,  with  even  the  most  simple  conveniences,  at  the  moment  of  their  requirement.  Still  he 
should  suffer  nothing  to  escape  him  5 and,  for  his  purpose,  the  rudest  slip  of  paper,  the  back  of  a 
letter,  may  be  made  to  serve — anything  that  will  receive  a mark.  We  have  known  artists,  on  an 
emergency,  sketch  on  their  thumb-nail. 

Recourse  may  be  frequently  had  even  to  written  notes  and  short-hand  observations,  which, 
although  unintelligible  to  others,  may  be  of  invaluable  assistance  to  the  artist’s  memory  in  recalling 
impressions ; however  insignificant  such  rude  sketches  may  appear,  they  often  prove  suggestive  of 
the  most  finished  and  successful  productions. 

32.  No  means  that  can  be  efficiently  employed,  in  availing  ourselves  of  the  suggestions  of 
Nature  or  the  imagination,  should  be  disregarded.  A memorandum  of  an  effect  of  light  may  be 
secured,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  intelligible  to  the  sketcher  himself — and  available  for  practical 
purposes,  by  expressing  touches  or  masses  of  light  by  bold  and  decided  indications  thereof — if 
colored  chalk  or  some  such  expedient  is  not  at  hand  — even  in  black , where  no  more  ready  mate- 
rials than  white  paper  and  pen  and  pencil  are  at  our  disposal,  and  time  or  circumstances  may  not 
allow  recourse  to  more  obviously  effective  means. 

33.  It  should  not  be  imagined  that,  in  suggesting  means,  methods,  or  materials,  for  drawing  or 
sketching,  we  desire  to  bias  the  learner’s  inclination  by  arbitrary  directions.  All  practical  artists 
have  their  own  peculiar  methods  of  expressing  themselves,  and  that  which  is  most  ready  and  man- 
ageable in  meeting  individual  or  circumstantial  requirements  will  be  found  always  to  be  the  best. 

The  perfect  freedom  and  efficiency  with  which  the  masters  of  art  employed  any  available  means 
of  graphic  expression,  which  chance  or  occasion  presented,  would  be  more  wonderful  if  the  secret 
of  their  excellence  could  not  be  distinctly  traced  to  higher  qualifications  than  dexterous  manage- 
ment of  any  one  or  more  materials.  Their  sketches  and  drawings  bear  evidence  how  little  reli- 
ance they  placed  upon  mere  method.  Many  defy  the  closest  investigation  to  discover  how,  or 
with  what  materials,  they  have  been  executed.  The  black-lead  pencil,  chalks  of  every  variety  of 
tint  and  character,  charcoal,  dry  colors,  and  even  clay,  may  be  detected,  rubbed  on  with  the  finger 
or  applied — it  is  hard  to  say  in  what  manner — pencilling  and  stumping  over  pen-lines,  and  pen- 
lines and  even  washed  tints  over  pencilling — all  accidental  combinations  and  suggestions  made 
available  with  inimitable  effectiveness,  and  the  whole  brought  into  subservience  to  the  leading 
purpose  of  all  art — truth  and  intelligibility.  We  may  almost  read,  in  the  materials  of  man) 
sketches  and  studies,  the  very  circumstances  under  which  they  were  produced. 


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34.  The  most  faintly-expressed  memoranda,  often  done  in  a moment,  and  under  circumstances 
that  would  preclude  the  possibility  of  effecting  more,  not  unfrequently  secure  the  happiest  sugges- 
tions. Impressions  thus  recorded  may  be  recalled  upon  the  memory,  with  a degree  of  distinctness 
almost  incredible,  which  in  all  probability  would  be  forgotten,  and  lost  for  ever,  if  something  had 
not  been  thus  secured,  upon  which  to  base  their  recovery.  The  facility  with  which  we  may  ac- 
quire, by  practice,  a habit  of  thus  striking  at  once  upon  the  motive  of  a subject,  will  scarcely 
surprise  us  ^ and  the  best  part  of  the  advantage  of  a reliable  method  consists  in  knowing  how  we 
do  it,  and  in  being  able  to  repeat  a success. 

35.  To  render  such  memoranda  practically  available  to  the  artist,  come  the  results  of  study 
and  familiarity  with  nature,  the  knowledge  held  in  store  for  the  occasion.  If  more  is  required 
than  he  has  at  command,  he  refers  back  to  Nature,  seeks  in  her  individualities  assimilating  infer- 
ences, or  verifications  of  conclusions.  The  strength  of  the  student  and  the  sketcher  are  thus  most 
happily  combined.  If  every  impression  presented  to  the  mind,  or  vision,  could  be  even  thus  faintly 
recorded  j if  the  many  precious  records,  thus  secured,  could  be  elaborated  into  more  perfect  works ; 
if  Art  could  thus  be  brought  in  closer  connexion,  in  stronger  sympathy  with  nature — it  would  be 
far  more  generally  acknowledged  and  appreciated  in  its  refining  influences  on  the  heart  and  mind. 

36.  Looking  to  results  rather  than  to  theories,  and  deriving  our  conclusions  from  knowledge  of 
the  course  pursued  by  those  who  have  attained  excellence  in  the  various  departments  of  art  rather 
than  attempting  the  discovery  of  newer  and  better  plans,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  nature  are  best  secured, after  a certain  degree  of  elementary  train- 
ing is  insured,  by  directing  such  study  to  a definite  purpose.  In  other  words,  the  teachings  of 
Nature  serve  us  more  effectually  when  the  absolute  necessity  of  her  aid  is  forced  upon  us, 
and  we  go  to  her  sensible  of  our  wants,  of  her  power  to  supply  them,  and  knowing  where  and  how 
to  seek,  and  as  well  to  appropriate  them.  Much  valuable  time  is  often  wasted  in  ill-directed  and 
comparatively  profitless  preparations,  in  making  collections  of  what  are  miscalled  studies.  Port- 
folios on  portfolios  may  be  piled  of  gnarled  stumps,  rocks,  and  trees  — of  heads,  limbs,  and  figures 
— bits  of  skies,  and  effects  of  light  and  shadow — all  to  little  account.  The  thing,  from  practice, 
becoming  comparatively  easy,  there  is  a tempting  fascination  in  the  occupation,  an  indulgence  in  a 
sort  of  agreeable  idleness,  a superficial  trifling  with  nature,  which,  passing  for  industry,  is  apt  to 
mislead  from  the  higher  aims  of  study.  When  studies  are  made  with  a view  to  definite  appropri- 
ation, either  as  accessory,  or  suggestive,  of  more  finished  productions  — when  scattered  fragments 
of  the  beautiful  in  Nature  are  made  component  parts  of  harmonious  works  of  art,  or  sought  for  to 


FROM  NATURE. 


197 


aid  in  their  production  — then  do  they  become  of  real  value,  not  only  in  themselves,  as  records  of 
her  truths,  but  in  the  knowledge  and  familiarity  with  her  varied  aspects  and  characteristics  ob- 
tained in  their  research  and  gathering.  Thus,  also,  are  the  inventive  faculties  most  healthfully 
excited  and  strengthened  5 and  more  than  this.  It  is  only  when  our  capacity  is  tested  by  at  least 
an  attempt  at  original  production,  when  we  venture  on  the  great  purpose  of  our  art,  and  when 
our  utmost  ability  is  brought  into  action,  that  our  real  requirements  become  evident. 

37.  After  all  that  may  be  said,  as  to  method,  in  sketching  or  drawing  from  nature,  there  is  one 
point  which  can  not  be  too  earnestly  enforced,  as  absolutely  necessary — not  only  to  the  artist  in 
his  more  perfect  works,  but  to  the  sketcher  and  student  under  all  circumstances  — and  that  is,  a 
knowledge  of  the  laws  and  practical  application  of  Perspective. 

Of  all  the  sciences  directly  applicable  to  art,  it  is  the  only  one  which  has  been  reduced  to  a 
certain  and  arbitrary  system.  Its  service  is  so  constantly  in  requisition  by  the  artist,  that  the 
neglect  of  its  acquirement  would  appear  to  be  a degree  of  folly  scarcely  possible,  did  wTe  not  find 
many  persisting  in  the  experiment  of  doing  without  it,  or  satisfied  with  vague  and  general  expres- 
sions of  its  principles. 

The  benefits  of  a knowledge  of  perspective  extend  beyond  the  certainty  which  it  insures  in 
linear  accuracy  of  pictorial  representations.  Theoretically,  as  well  as  practically,  it  bears,  more 
or  less,  upon  all  the  great  requisites  of  perfection  in  art. 

38.  In  drawing  a simple  figure,  it  may  appear  not  only  difficult,  but  unnecessary,  that  all  its 
lines  should  be  brought  to  the  test  of  strict  perspective  calculations  5 but,  to  do  so  with  precision, 
or  to  place  such  figures  in  a group,  or  in  proper  relation  to  other  objects,  in  perfect  harmony 
therewith,  would  be  still  more  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  without  a knowledge  of  its  general  prin- 
ciples. Even  in  drawing  or  sketching  a head,  its  rules  must  be  borne  in  mind;  for,  however 
slightly  the  drawing  of  the  features  may  be  effected  thereby,  that  they  are  so  is  sufficient  to  render 
its  aid  important. 

There  is  nothing  upon  which  the  eye  can  rest,  whose  image  is  not  impressed  upon  that  organ 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  perspective  5 therefore,  nothing  that  art  may  attempt,  which  should 
not  be  in  conformity  thereto.  Instead  of  restraining,  its  laws  enlarge  the  privileges  of  the  artist. 

It  matters  not  under  what  circumstances  objects  may  be  presented,  we  can,  by  the  aid  of  per- ' 
spective,  select  our  own  points  of  observation,  even  although  they  be  imaginarv.  Thus  violent 
and  offensive  exaggerations  are  brought  by  it  to  agreeable  harmony,  and  the  artist  in  a measure 
balances  his  account  with  Nature  by  presenting  her  under  aspects  and  combinations  which  are  to 


I5>3 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


■ ,1 


the  uninitiated  that  mysterious  charm  which  often  gives  to  the  pictured  representation  an  impression 
more  favorable  and  striking  than  the  reality. 

39.  It  will  frequently  occur,  in  sketching  and  drawing  from  nature,  that  the  artist  can  not 
place  himself  at  the  exact  point  for  viewing  his  subject  under  the  perspective  influences  in  which 
it  may  be  desirable  to  represent  it.  For  example,  let  us  suppose  such  an  object  upon  a bold, 
upright  cliif.  On  the  side  where  it  may  be  most  desirable  to  make  the  drawing,  there  are  but  a 
few  paces  to  the  very  edge  of  the  cliff.  Here  the  draughtsman  may  be  able  to  examine,  and  draw, 
and  make  memoranda  of  the  whole,  with  its  details  and  minutise  5 but,  if  he  were  to  attempt  to 
draw  it  in  the  perspective  in  which  he  is  compelled  to  see  it,  no  one  would  recognise  or  accept  it 
as  a veritable  representation.  But,  he  imagines  himself  at  a proper  distance,  as  though  he  were 
on  the  deck  of  a vessel,  or  some  rock  placed  there  expressly  for  his  convenience.  He  satisfies 
himself  with  regard  to  all  the  points,  bearings,  and  proportions,  of  the  objects,  as  though  he  saw 
them  under  such  circumstances.  He  regulates  the  whole  by  his  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  per- 
spective, as  accurately  as  if  he  stood  upon  the  very  spot  from  which  he  desires  it  to  be  understood 
that  the  view  is  taken. 

40.  We  know  a vine-shaded  convent-walk,  to  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  have  access,  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  it,  from  a point  more  distant  than  about  ten  feet.  If  we  remove  farther 
off,  the  greater  part  of  it  is  shut  out,  or  interrupted,  by  trees  and  shrubbery.  To  make  a sketch, 
or  drawing,  at  this  limited  distance,  precisely  as  it  is  seen,  would  not  only  strain  the  rules  of  per- 
spective beyond  all  justifiable  exaction,  but  would  present  false  and  misleading  impressions  of  the 
reality.  Still,  for  the  sake  of  exemplification,  let  us  make  the  attempt. 


FROM  NATURE. 


199 


To  show  the  nature  of  the  violations  of  propriety  in  attempting  perspective  operations  upon 
the  premises  of  so  short  a distance , we  give  the  perspective  plan  upon  which  the  sketch  is  based, 
which  will  sufficiently  direct  the  student  to  their  discovery. 

As  ten  feet  is  the  distance  to  the  first  two  square  pillars,  or  stone  supporters  of  the  vine,  it  is 
evident  that  we  can  introduce  nothing  which  is  nearer,  within  the  limits  of  the  picture.  These 
pillars  are  all  twelve  feet  high,  twelve  feet  apart  (measured  from  their  centres),  and  the  space 
between  the  walls  on  each  side  of  the  walk  is  twelve  feet.  The  top  of  the  wall  running  with  the 
base  of  the  pillars  is  perfectly  horizontal.  The  ground  is  irregular,  and  slopes  downward  toward 
the  gate;  after  which  it  is  level.  We  have,  for  the  sake  of  clearer  illustration,  placed  a monk 
occupying  a position  even  with  the  first  two  pillars,  and  consequently  just  within  the  picture ; and 
another,  in  shadow,  immediately  under  the  gateway.  The  real  distance,  therefore,  between  these 
two  figures  (as  well  as  between  the  nearest  side  of  the  first  two  pillars  and  the  gateway),  is  about 
thirty-six  feet.  How  far  from  a correct  impression  of  such  distance,  and  consequently  of  the 
relative  proportions  of  all  intervening  objects,  the  sketch  presents,  is  evident. 

Let  us  make  another  trial.  Let  us  assume  a more  remote  point  of  distance , and  regulate 
the  positions  and  proportions  of  the  objects,  perspectively,  in  accordance  therewith; although  we 
may  not  be  able  to  see  the  objects  in  our  picture  as  they  would  appear  at  such  a distance.  Let 
us  give  the  distance  we  had  in  the  first  instance  to  the  picture,  and  make  up  a foreground  from 
the  very  shrubs  at  our  feet.  To  this  point  we  thus  extend  the  picture,  and  on  it  establish  our 
base  line  e f.  (This  gives  us  a scale  of  proportions  on  such  base  line  of  four  feet  to  the  inch.) 
We  now  imagine  ourselves  twelve  feet  farther  back,  from  the  spot  where  we  actually  stand  — and 
take  that  as  a distance  for  our  picture , nearly  equal  to  its  whole  width. 


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SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


We  have  evidently  still  not  enough  distance  to  meet  the  requisition  of  the  eye.  The  perspec- 
tive is  still  inconsistent  with  the  size  of  the  sketch,  and  the  eye  refuses  to  admit  any  impression  of 
it  at  the  limited  distance  of  scarcely  two  and  a half  inches , at  which  it  requires  to  be  viewed  to 
bring  it  within  its  range.  In  the  case  of  the  first  sketch,  it  is  utterly  impossible  that  the  eye  could 
have  received  it  as  a whole,  and  scarcely  less  so  in  the  second.  It  would  naturally  have  sought  relief 
by  seeking  various  points  of  sight,  and  have  satisfied  itself  by  a number  of  perspective  pictures. 
Art,  therefore,  which  can  only  present  one  picture , and  one  point  of  sight , at  the  same  time, 
must  select  a point  of  distance  in  its  representations,  to  meet  the  natural  and  easy  range  of  vision 
(chapter  v.,  65).  Let  us  assume  such  a point,  and  that  at  a distance  of  nine  inches  for  the 
sketch,  which,  according  to  its  scale,  would  be  equivalent  to  thirty-six  feet  in  nature,  and  which, 


although  somewhat  less  than  three  times  the  width  of  the  sketch,  may  be  allowable,  in  consideration 
of  the  unimportant  character  of  the  objects  in  the  foreground  and  at  the  sides. 


To  preserve  the  height  of  the  two  nearest  pdlars,  and  that  of  the  nearer  monk,  the  same  in  the 
three  sketches,  we  have  a space  in  the  third  sketch,  from  the  positions  they  occupy  to  the  base 
line,  nearly  equal  to  that  between  the  two  monks.  It  should  be  further  observed,  that,  from  the 
irregularity  of  the  ground,  very  little  if  any  of  the  shrubbery,  indicated  in  the  foreground,  extends 
as  far  forward,  in  the  picture,  as  the  perspective  base  line. 

With  the  three  sketches,  and  the  actual  proportions  of  the  distances  and  relations  of  the  objects 
to  one  another,  we  leave  the  student  to  form  his  own  conclusions,  as  well  as  to  decide  how  far 
truth  has  been  violated  therein,  by  perspectively  representing  objects,  not  exactly  as  we  are  com- 
pelled to  see  them  in  nature,  but  as  they  might  be  seen,  and  as  they  may  be  allowably  appropri- 
ated to  the  purposes  of  art. 


FROM  NATURE. 


201 


41.  We  have  given  the  perspective  calculations,  or  diagrams,  of  each  of  these  sketches,  pre- 
cisely as  they  were  made  for  our  own  immediate  purposes,  and  not  as  elaborated  geometrical 
drawings.  They  show  how  little  is  really  required,  as  premises  for  drawing  or  sketching,  upon  a 
defined  perspective  arrangement  of  a subject. 

In  most  cases  where  elaborate  perspective  calculations  and  drawings  are  required,  either  as 
premises  for  pictures,  or  verification  of  their  perspective  accuracy,  it  may  be  often  advisable  to 
make  them  on  transparent,  or  tracing  paper,  rather  than  directly  on  the  paper  or  canvas,  etc.,  des- 
tined to  receive  the  finished  work.  Such  geometrical  drawings,  whether  required  for  direction  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  picture,  or  at  any  time  during  its  progress,  may  be  readily  adjusted  to  a 
proper  position ; and  either  the  whole  design,  or  any  portion,  drawn  thereon  with  a pencil,  may 
be  at  the  same  time  repeated,  or  calqued , in  its  proper  place,  by  means  of  a sheet  or  piece  of 
tissue-paper  placed  between  the  tracing-paper  and  that  of  the  picture — the  tissue-paper  being 
previously  rubbed  over,  on  the  side  next  the  picture,  with  powdered  plumbago,  or  the  scrapings 
of  a soft  pencil  or  crayon.  Thus  we  have,  for  future  reference  and  corrections,  which  may  fre- 
quently be  found  necessary  in  the  progress  of  our  work,  both  a perspective  and  an  outline  drawing, 
and,  by  laying  either  one  or  both  over  our  picture,  we  can  at  any  moment  test  a suspected  devi- 
ation from  propriety.  In  adjusting  these  tracings,  drawing-pins  or  bits  of  wax  may  be  employed. 
Thus  many  inconveniences  may  be  obviated,  and  a necessity  of  scoring  our  picture  with  lines 
avoided. 

42.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  experienced  in  the  management  of  perspective  drawings 
arises  from  working-distances  and  vanishing-points  extending  beyond  the  limits  of  a picture.  A 
very  efficient  rule  has  been  given  (chapter  vi.,  68),  to  obviate  this  difficulty ; but  even  that  may 
not  be  always  practicable.  The  exercise  of  a little  ingenuity,  however,  will  rarely  leave  the  artist 
at  a loss  for  an  expedient. 

In  the  first  place,  we  know  to  a certainty  the  position  of  the  horizon  of  our  subject : that,  of 
course,  must  be  within  the  limits  of  the  picture.  So  must  be  the  point  of  sight.  F or  our  point  of 
distance , therefore,  we  have  but  to  extend  our  line  of  the  horizon  from  the  point  of  sight  to  the 
limits  of  such  distance.  This  may  be  readily  done,  for  example,  if  we  are  in  our  studio,  by  attach- 
ing a thread  to  any  object — say  a chair  — by  a tack  or  pin,  at  a point  corresponding  to  the  line 
of  the  horizon  of  our  picture  (as  it  stands  upon  the  easel),  and  removing  the  chair  to  the  distance 
required — carefully  observing  that,  when  the  thread  is  stretched  against  the  picture,  it  falls  exactly 
over  the  horizon-line.  A thread,  thus  adjusted,  will  be  found  to  answer  every  purpose  of  lines 

seeking  the  point  of  distance.  If  we  desire  to  indicate  any  such  lines  on  the  picture,  we  can  do 

26 


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SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


so  very  readily  by  chalking  the  thread,  and  rapping  it  against  the  picture,  precisely  as  a carpenter 
uses  his  chalk-line.  Vanishing-points  which  may  fall  out  of  the  limits  of  the  picture  may  be  man- 
aged in  the  same  manner. 

It  is  frequently  desirable,  in  the  progress  of  a work,  to  recover  certain  perspective  lines  and 
points  which  may  have  become  obliterated,  or  worked  out  of  place  5 and,  to  this  end,  a thread  will 
be  generally  found  most  serviceable,  as  it  can  be  applied  even  over  moist  oil-colors,  without 
injury.  Where  we  merely  require  the  guidance  of  a horizontal  line,  a fine  thread,  stretched  in  its 
place,  obviates  all  necessity  for  erasures,  and  can  at  any  time  be  renewed.  For  this  purpose, 
the  points  on  the  edge  of  the  picture,  where  such  line  falls,  should  always  be  preserved.  If  a 
necessity  for  the  recovery  of  a vanishing-point  is  likely  to  be  of  frequent  recurrence — as,  for 
instance,  in  a landscape  with  buildings,  or  in  architectural  subjects — the  picture,  if  on  canvas, 
may  be  even  pierced  at  such  point  with  a fine  needle,  and  a thread  passed  through,  for  the  pur- 
pose, without  injury  — a touch  of  color,  when  it  is  no  longer  required,  being  sufficient  to  obliterate 
every  trace  of  it. 

In  making  out  perspective  drawings,  on  paper  stretched  on  a board  or  table,  much  time  may 
be  saved,  and  accuracy  insured,  by  fixing  fine  needles  at  the  points  of  sight,  principal  vanishing- 
points,  distance,  etc. 

These  few,  of  many  other  expedients  which  might  be  suggested,  have  been  given  in  the  hope 
that  they  may  tend  to  do  away  with  the  dread,  which  too  many  have,  of  encountering  “ the  worry 
of  perspective” — without  which  they  may  rest  assured  that  no  one  ever  yet  went  far  successfully 
in  art,  and  that  no  one  ever  will. 

43.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  it  may  be  required  that  the  sketcher  should  employ  a sort 
of  short-hand  method  of  securing  memoranda,  which  may  be  afterward  elaborated  quite  as  well, 
if  not  better,  under  more  convenient  circumstances.  Thus,  in  sketching  buildings,  it  may  be 
enough  to  indicate  the  general  forms  and  proportions,  and,  instead  of  laboring  over  details,  which 
may  be  often  repeated  in  the  same  subject,  to  elaborate  such  details  in  bits  here  and  there  — or 
perhaps  on  a larger  scale,  at  the  foot  of  the  sketch,  or  on  another  piece  of  paper.  Instead  of 
drawing  in  with  equal  care  and  precision  all  the  windows,  doors,  cornices,  etc.,  of  a building,  it 
may  be  sufficient  to  mark  their  position  and  number,  and  to  finish  carefully  one  of  each. 

44.  In  sketching  views,  it  very  frequently  occurs  that  we  are  obliged  to  get  in  the  generar 
effect  and  composition  on  a scale  so  small  that,  when  we  come  to  its  details,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  express  them  with  the  distinctness  which  may  be  desirable.  In  such  cases,  it  is  always  better 


FROM  NATURE 


20. 


to  secure  a generalized  indication  of  the  whole,  and  then  to  make  separate  memoranda  of  the 
most  marked  individual  parts  which  we  may  desire  as  assistants  in  afterward  making  out  a more 
complete  work. 


45.  There  are  many  expedients  to  which  the  sketcher  is  compelled  to  have  recourse  in  order 
to  secure  the  greatest  amount  of  material  or  memoranda,  which  to  a certain  extent  may  be  even 
allowable  in  a study.  Thus  in  the  following,  which  we  give  as  nearly  as  possible  in  fac-simile  from 
a working  study  and  sketch  by  a practical  artist.  It  is  certainly  in  parts  something  more  than  a 
mere  sketch ; it  is  far  from  being  perfect  as  a study ; neither  can  it  be  considered  a picture.  In 
answer  to  the  question  of  its  character,  we  can  not  give  a better  explanation  than  in  the  words  of 
the  artist.:  u I had  not  time  to  make  a study  of  the  whole.  If  it  had  been  at  my  disposal,  there 
were  other  objects  at  hand  upon  which  I 
could  have  bestowed  it  to  more  profit.  I 
wanted  a study  of  the  overhanging  tree, 
and  some  bits  here  and  there.  For  the 
rest,  a sketch  served  my  purposes.” 


46.  It  is  advisable  that  all  sketches,  studies,  or  memoranda,  made  in  the  presence  of  our  model, 
However  unfinished  they  may  be,  should  be  as  little  as  possible  worked  over  afterward — as  much 


204 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 

that  is  valuable  and  suggestive  in  them  may  be  thus  lost.  They  should  be  considered  as  materials 
for  the  production  of  pictures — not  in  themselves  pictures. 


47.  Sketches  and  studies  are  more  or  less  intrinsically  valuable,  apart  from  the  profit  derived 
from  their  production,  as  they  are  more  or  less  reliable  records  and  available  material  by  which  more 


FROM  NATURE. 


205 


complete  works  may  be  suggested,  combined,  and  perfected.  Hence,  the  more  faithful  they  are, 
the  better  ; not  only  in  the  preservation  of  the  general  characteristics  of  their  subject,  but  also,  as 
far  as  possible,  of  their  individual  peculiarities.  The  student  should  be  diffident  of  premature 
assumption  of  capacity  to  correct  Nature.  It  is  no  beginner’s  prerogative.  The  first  essays  of 
his  strength  in  this  particular  should  not  be  ventured  upon  too  confidently.  There  will  be  found 
much  to  learn  before  he  can  form  for  himself  a standard  of  ideal  beauty  and  perfection.  He  must 
“learn  to  correct  Nature  by  herself — her  imperfect  by  her  more  perfect.”  By  knowledge  thus 
gained  of  what  is  general  and  what  is  individual — what  are  accidental  differences,  and  what  are 
prevailing  characteristics — his  mind  will  gradually  expand  to  a just  comprehension  of  the  attri- 
butes of  beauty.  He  will  then  know  how  to  discriminate  — how  to  separate  that  which  is  particu- 
lar and  uncommon,  deviations  from  the  prevailing  perfection  of  Nature  which  constitute  deformity 
— and  how  to  combine  his  conclusions  to  a safe  standard. 

48.  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  alluding  to  the  error  too  commonly  prevalent  among  students,  of  not 
drawing  exactly  from  the  living  models  which  they  have  before  them,  and  of  endeavoring  “ to  make 
a drawing  rather  of  what  they  think  the  figure  ought  to  be,  than  of  what  it  appears,”  justly  re- 
marks : “ I have  thought  this  the  obstacle  that  has  stopped  the  progress  of  many  young  men  of  real 
genius;  and  I very  much  doubt  whether  a habit  of  drawing  correctly  what  we  see  will  not  give  a 
proportionable  power  of  drawing  correctly  what  we  imagine.  He  who  endeavors  to  copy  nicely 
the  figure  before  him,  not  only  acquires  a habit  of  exactness  and  precision,  but  is  continually  ad- 
vancing in  his  knowledge  of  the  human  figure ; and  though  he  seems,  to  superficial  observers,  to 
make  a slower  progress,  he  will  be  for^d  at  last  capable  of  adding  (without  running  into  capricious 
wildness)  that  grace  and  beauty  which  is  necessary  to  be  given  to  his  more  finished  works,  and 
which  can  not  be  got  by  the  moderns,  as  it  was  not  acquired  by  the  ancients,  but  by  an  attentive 
and  well-compared  study  of  the  human  form.”  These  remarks  apply  with  equal  force  to  every 

object  of  study  in  Nature,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  human  figure. 

f 

49.  It  can  scarcely  be  expected  of  us  to  supply  the  many  and  various  progressive  requirements 
of  the  art-student,  in  branches  of  knowledge  of  which  he  may  feel  the  necessity,  or  the  subject  of 
Anatomy,  especially  that  of  the  human  figure,  would  have  been  earlier  presented  to  consideration. 

However  important,  indeed  absolutely  necessary,  a certain  amount  of  anatomical  knowledge 
may  be  to  the  artist,  there  can  be  no  question  that  its  acquirement  may  be  more  profitably  secured 
by  progressive  study,  based  upon  that  of  the  living  model,  than  by  reliance  upon  books.  Even  the 
advantages  of  dissection  may  be  very  questionable,  unless  practised  at  a period  of  advancement  by 


^OG 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


which  we  are  qualified  to  seek  with  definite  purpose,  fully  conscious  of  the  nature  of  our  require- 
ments, and  capable  of  rightly  appropriating  such  advantages. 

50.  There  are  few,  even  among  most  indifferent  observers,  who  can  not  detect  imperfection  in 
a limb  or  figure  in  Nature,  and  as  few  comparatively  who  know  that  a man’s  skull  is  not  all  in  one 
piece,  and  that  his  great-toe  has  one  bone  less  than  the  others.  If,  therefore,  those  who  make  it 
no  special  business  to  observe  or  investigate,  so  readily  reach  conclusions,  why  may  not  the  artist 
venture  upon  the  delineation  of  the  human,  or  any  other  living  form,  without  the  profound  knowl- 
edge of  the  surgeon  or  naturalist  ? A smattering  of  anatomical  knowledge  prematurely  acquired 
may  even  lead  to  injurious  tendencies,  as  we  have  often  had  occasion  to  remark  by  the  vain  at- 
tempts of  young  aspirants  to  build  a figure  instead  of  drawing  it.  The  reproof  of  Fuseli  to  a 
youth  whom  he  detected  in  trying  to  make  out  the  beautiful  and  delicate  markings  on  the  side  of 
the  Apollo,  by  counting  the  ribs,  is  worth  remembering:  “You  need  not  count  them,  young  man; 
they  don’t  cost  anything.” 

Let  none  imagine  that  proficiency  in  anatomical  science,  as  required  by  the  artist,  is  to  be 
gained  by  learning  by  rote  its  technicalities.  It  may  sound  very  learned  to  talk  like  a surgeon, 
but  it  helps  very  little  to  capacity  in  drawing  the  figure,  unless  based  upon  a knowledge  of  the 
effect  of  its  internal  structure  upon  its  outward  form,  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  the  study 
of  living  nature. 

All  that  we  could  possibly  say  on  the  subject  of  Anatomy,  or  present  in  illustration,  may  be  so 
readily  obtained  from  other  works,  in  many  amplified  to  an  extent  meeting  the  utmost  requirement 
which  books  are  capable  of  affording,  that  we  consider  it  scarely  necessary  to  engross  the  pages  to 
which  we  are  limited  by  matter  which  may  be  found  elsewhere  quite  as  well  if  not  better  supplied. 

We  would  desire,  however,  earnestly  to  impress  upon  the  student  the  importance  of  a famil- 
iarity and  knowledge  of  the  structure,  proportions,  and  action,  of  the  skeleton  (23),  not  only  in  its 
general  characteristics,  but  as  well  in  all  its  details.  Comparatively  few,  to  meet  whose  require- 
ments of  practical  direction  in  the  elementary  principles  of  art  our  work  is  intended,  may  require 
to  extend  their  anatomical  studies  to  the  degree  necessary  to  the  more  aspiring  artist  ; yet  all, 
to  be  able  to  draw  the  figure  with  any  degree  of  truth  and  readiness,  must  make  themselves  famil- 
iar with  the  skeleton,  find  learn  to  recognise  and  understand  its  influence  on  exterior  forms. 

51.  Where  access  can  be  obtained  to  a well-arranged  natural  skeleton  carefully  put  together 
by  means  of  artificial  hinges,  springs,  etc.,  thus  uniting  all  the  parts  in  their  proper  places,  and 
allowing  each  its  just  movement,  great  advantages  may  be  derived  from  its  study.  No  school 


FROM  NATURE. 


207 


where  drawing  is  properly  taught  should  be  without  one,  as  well  as  approved  plaster  casts  of  com- 
plete anatomical  figures  and  detailed  parts  in  various  actions. 

Repulsive  as  it  may  be  to  be  thus  brought  into  familiar  contact  with  the  evidences  of  “ what 
we  are,  and  must  be,”  we  can  not  be  made  the  worse  for  it.  Indeed,  it  is  a subject  worthy  of 
serious  consideration  if  a certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  human  frame  should 
not  constitute  a part  of  popular  education.  He  who  at  least  .understands  the  general  principles 
upon  which  the  watch  he  carries  is  constructed,  knows  how  to  guard  it  better  from  accident  or 
injury ; and  many  a broken  bone,  or  dislocated  joint,  might  be  avoided,  as  well  as  the  precious  gift 
of  health  and  vigor  preserved,  if  men  were  more  familiar  with  the  machinery  of  their  own  won- 
derful structure. 

52.  To  attempt  to  analyze  the  means  and  exemplify  the  process  by  which  ideal  creations 
become  as  it  were  tangible  to  the  imitative  privileges  of  the  artist,  would  lead  to  a more  extended 
discussion  than  we  can  spare  from  more  important  practical  matter.  Were  it  at  our  disposal,  it 
could  be  shown  that  the  linear  delineation  of  a subject,  or  idea,  impressed  upon  the  imagination, 
differs  far  less  than  is  generally  supposed  from  that  suggested  by  a material  model.  As  far  back 
as  the  first  chapter  it  has  been  said  that  “ he  who  can  draw  nothing  but  what  he  has  before  him 
loses  the  best  half  of  the  art.”  Before  the  learner  had  been  presumed  to  have  exceeded  a very 
moderate  proficiency  in  drawing  the  most  simple  straight  lines,  and  objects  formed  thereby,  the 
cultivation  of  capacity  to  this  end  was  in  view.  However  it  may  even  offend  the  pride  of  the  aspi- 
rant to  the  high  privilege  of  testing  his  genius  in  the  ideal  to  tell  him  that  he  must  learn  to  draw 
— first  a straight  line  by  memory,  and  then  a curved  one — a block  — a box  — a table  — and  such 
like — he  will  find  it  to  be  true.  If  he  can  do  so  already,  he  has  secured  a safe  beginning ; if  he 
can  not — if  his  memory  and  hand  will  not  sustain  him  in  such  simple  requirement — how  little  can 
they  be  relied  upon  to  meet  with  promptness  the  endless  demands  for  more  complicated  forms 
which  invention  in  design  requires  ? 

The  mind  must  be  dndeed  barren  that  does  not  follow  a narration  of  an  event  or  the  expres- 
sion of  an  idea  with  a pictured  conception.  The  artist  at  least  identifies  his  very  presence  with  it, 
feels  that  he  is  there,  if  not  a participator  in  its  action.  To  give  expression,  by  means  of  design, 
to  such  impressions,  may  be  called  invention,  but  it  is  in  truth  little  more  than  the  producing  of 
new  combinations,  available  in  the  degree  to  which  memory  may  supply  from  the  material  world 
means  and  power  of  giving  expression  to  the  ideal. 

Rarely,  if  ever,  does  the  imagination  act  without  impulse  or  suggestion  — “ nothing  can  come 
of  nothing”  and  we  hail  as  genius  the  ability  of  seizing  at  once  upon  such  suggestions,  expanding 


20S 


SKETCHING  AND  STUDYING 


them  to  perfection,  and  giving  them  intelligible  expression.  Thus  may  the  germ  be  often  lost  in 
the  matured  fruit,  but  without  it  it  would  have  no  existence.  Equally  stamped  with  the  peculiari- 
ties of  its  own  nature,  marked  with  what  we  recognise  as  originality,  may  be  the  productions  of 
genius  ; but  that  originality  consists  more  in  the  peculiar  action  or  direction  of  already-acquired 
ideas  in  new  combinations,  than  in  any  spontaneous  exercise  of  a mysterious  and  peculiar  gift. 

53.  That  from  such  resources,  and  by  such  means,  as  we  have  endeavored  to  point  out,  the 
most  successful  artists,  whose  career  we  can  trace,  achieved  their  excellence,  there  can  be  little 
doubt.  They  used  no  dead  language  to  express  their  ideas.  They  sought  its  very  alphabet  in  the 
book  of  Nature;  the  living,  breathing  Nature  with  which  they  were  surrounded;  the  Nature  that 
those  to  whom  they  addressed  themselves  could  understand.  The  art  of  others  they  tried  by  her 
standard,  and  appropriated,  so  far  as  they  considered  it  consistent  therewith.  Hence  have  origi- 
nated the  national  characteristics  of  schools  of  art.  Hence  their  success  at  home — their  failure 
as  exotics,  when  forced  against  national  sympathies.  Hence  may  we  look  with  hope  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  success  of  an  American  school  of  art — a school  harmonizing  with  the  Nature  whence 
it  must  derive  suggestion  and  material,  as  well  as  one  that  will  meet  the  national  sympathy  and 
requirement  to  which  it  equally  gives  impulse. 


HE  value  of  all  verbal  direction,  in  the  manual  operations  of  art, 
must  be,  necessarily,  very  limited,  and  can  only  be  available  to 
those  already,  in  some  degree  at  least,  familiar  with  them.  Any 
one  who  desires  to  make  a beginning  in  any  style  of  painting  can 
learn  more  to  the  purpose  by  half  an  hour's  observation  of  an 
artist  at  work  than  by  toiling  through  a dozen  volumes.  The 
knowledge  thus  gained,  however,  can  assist  only  to  a beginning, 
by  placing  the  means  and  materials  in  hand,  a trial  of  which, 
once  made,  however  unsuccessful,  the  work  is  commenced  — a step  is  taken  5 the  next  must  lead 
to  progress,  and  then  books  and  verbal  instruction  may  become  of  real  service.  The  main  reliance, 
in  seeking  the  development  of  the  power,  capacity,  and  nature  of  the  materials,  as  well  as  in  matu- 
ring the  hand  and  judgment  in  their  proper  application,  must  nevertheless  be  placed  in  tbe  lessons 
to  be  derived  from  practical  experience.  In  this  respect,  the  advice  which  has  been  given,  in 

reference  to  linear  operations,  is  equally  applicable  to  painting,  as  to  all  the  processes,  means,  and 

27 


210 


PAIN  T I N G. 


methods,  employed  in  the  imitative  arts.  Be  contented  with  small  beginnings,  rather  than  rashly 
venture  ; and  let  ambition  be  restrained  to  the  measure  of  your  strength  to  bear  you  through  suc- 
cessfully. Endeavor  to  keep  within  the  range  of  possibilities.  Allow  not  restlessness  of  spirit  at 
the  slowness  of  your  progress,  or  the  appearance  of  difficulties,  which  will  constantly  present  them- 
selves, induce  despair,  nor  let  partial  success  lead  to  too  high  expectation.  The  way  to  excellence, 
if  long,  need  not  be  wearisome,  or  painful;  for  the  reward  and  satisfaction  of  results  accomplished, 
however  imperfectly,  may  be  realized  at  every  step. 

2.  In  no  department  of  art  are  the  advantages  and  happy  influences  of  a well-balanced  and 
progressive  growth  of  judgment  and  capacity  of  hand,  keeping  pace  with  one  another,  better  ex- 
emplified than  in  the  acquirement  of  a command  of  the  resources  of  the  palette.  Feeble  as  may 
be  the  efforts  of  the  beginner,  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  he  holds  in  his  hand  the  means  of  meas- 
uring his  strength  with  the  highest  degree  of  attainment  yet  reached  in  art,  or  of  rivalry  with  Na- 
ture in  her  perfected  beauty,  and  keep  a bold  heart  and  steady  purpose.  Although  slower  in 
reaching  maturity  of  excellence  than  may  be  desired,  or  consistent  with  the  inclinations  of  many, 
and  more  dependent  upon  the  influences  of  certain  natural  faculties  than  the  linear  imitation  of 
mere  forms,  yet  none  need  despair  of  acquiring  a degree  of  efficiency  therein,  which  will  ampl) 
repay  whatever  amount  of  pains  may  be  bestowed. 

3.  There  can  be  no  reason  why  the  learner  should  not  make  an  essay  in  the  use  of  colors  as 
soon  as  his  impulses  and  desires  may  direct  thereto.  However  true  it  may  be,  that  many  are  often 
led  astray  by  the  fascination  of  color,  to  the  neglect  of  drawing,  and  studies  less  engaging,  yet  it 
does  not  follow  that  such  should  be  the  case.  Injurious  consequences  are  only  to  be  apprehended 
where  there  is  a want  of  that  right  spirit,  that  love  of  truth  and  excellence,  without  which  it  is 
hopeless  ever  to  expect  more  than  mediocrity  in  artistic  attainment.  Facility  of  drawing  may  be 
as  readily  gained  by  the  use  of  the  Brush  as  the  Crayon.  Its  power  of  expression  is  certainly 
greater,  as  well  as  its  means  of  reaching  satisfactory  results;  the  value  of  which,  in  stimulating 
and  encouraging  the  learner,  deserves  consideration.  It  is  of  no  use  to  wait  until  he  has  mastered, 
as  preliminary,  all  the  accomplishments  of  a finished  draughtsman,  the  rules  of  perspective,  and 
theories  of  light  and  shadow ; until  he  possess  a perfect  understanding  of  the  machinery  of  the 
human  figure  and  its  anatomical  expression ; with  the  various  other  adjunct  qualifications  which, 
in  a greater  or  less  degree,  may  become  necessary  for  him.  Nor  is  there  any  reason  that,  as  soon 
as  he  takes  the  brush  in  hand,  he  should  discard  the  pen  or  pencil.  On  the  contrary,  they  may 
thus  become  more  than  ever  available.  Many,  in  commencing  to  learn  to  draw,  may  have  this 


PAINTIN  G. 


21 1 

ultimate  purpose  in  view,  and  therefore  the  sooner  they  make  a beginning  the  better  ; thus  early 
placing  themselves  in  the  way  of  acquiring  familiarity  and  practical  command  of  their  materials, 
which  is  no  single  day’s  or  year’s  work  to  obtain.  We  seek  not  to  burden  ourselves  with  provis- 
ion for  a journey  through  a land  abounding  with  plenty,  which  may  be  had  for  the  pains  of  gathering 
on  our  way.  Why  should  it  be  required,  in  an  art  so  abundant  in  resources  ? or  why  should  the 
faculties  be  injuriously  overtasked,  or  their  energies  repressed,  in  preparations  against  future  exi- 
gencies— thus  sapping  and  dissipating  their  vital  strength  in  painful  labors,  prematurely  exacted, 
and  inefficiently  applied,  in  the  attainment  of  qualifications  that  would  come  in  their  own  good 
time  by  an  easier  way  ? 

4.  It  is  useless  for  the  beginner  to  harass  himself  about  the  nicer  processes  of  painting,  or 
to  expect  at  once  to  command  the  resources  possessed  by  the  more  experienced.  The  surest  way 
for  him,  at  first,  is  to  seek  to  get  all  he  can  by  the  most  simple  and  direct  methods.  When  he  is 
able  to  do  something  without  the  nicer  and  more  complicated  applications  of  the  pigments,  he  will 
have  secured  a reliable  basis  for  the  better  understanding  of  their  use  and  value.  If  his  first 
attempts  are  directed  to  copying,  the  selection  of  the  subject,  or  model,  should  be  of  the  most  sim- 
ple kind,  and  produced  in  the  most  simple  manner.  Let  him,  before  he  begins,  study  it  well.  All 
that  has  been  said,  in  the  previous  chapter,  in  relation  to  the  error  of  being  in  too  great  a hurry  to 
get  on  with  a drawing,  is  even  more  forcibly  applicable  to  painting.  Nor  is  this  caution  less  requi- 
site for  the  more  advanced  than  the  mere  beginner  — for  the  copyist  from  art,  or  for  the  imitator 
of  nature  — and  equally  to  be  regarded  in  the  highest  efforts  of  invention  and  imagination:  for, 
although  the  palpable,  tangible  model  may  not  in  such  cases  exist,  beyond  the  impression  on  the 
mind  of  the  artist,  it  should  be  there,  as  clearly  impressed,  and  as  capable  of  receiving  all  the  refi- 
ning action  of  his  judgment  and  knowledge  in  its  translation  into  a more  real  shape.  Thus  will  it 
become  with  a mind  rightly  trained  in  the  pure  truths  of  nature  and  art,  and  familiar  with  the  sym- 
pathies that  exist  between  them  — a work  of  time  and  study,  often  of  pains  and  labor;  yet  come 
it  will,  if  sought  with  earnestness,  developing  by  degrees  the  worth  and  reality  of  its  possession,  and 
ever  cheering  onward  in  its  pursuit. 

5.  It  is  not  only  in  the  use  and  application  of  colors  that  practice  is  so  much  to  be  relied  upon, 
but  also  in  the  acquirement  of  capacity  for  seeing  and  judging  of  them  rightly  in  nature.  It  is  thus 
that  the  many  and  various  delicately-marked  gradations  of  tints,  their  local  value,  their  individual 
and  relative  strength,  become  evident — another  reason  that  the  work  should  be  set  about  early. 
Tn  this  respect,  as  in  many  others,  learners  may  often  find  their  progress  less  rapid  than  their 


212 


PAINTING. 


desires,  and  feel  discouraged  on  that  account.  They  may  imagine,  too,  as  they  stand  by  the  easel 
of  the  artist,  who  has  spent  perhaps  the  best  part  of  a life  in  daily  practice,  and  familiarity  with  his 
materials,  that  there  is  a knack  about  his  management  of  them,  an  apparent  freedom  with  which 
he  subjects  them  to  his  will  — the  result  of  some  hidden  secret  which  he  possesses.  They  may 
come  to  him,  in  the  simplicity  of  their  conception  of  the  means  of  artistic  acquirement,  and  tell 
him  “they  have  taken  lessons  in  drawing  for  three  months,  and  that  all  they  want  now  is  to  know 
how  to  lay  on  the  colors .”  If  he  tell  them  “ it  is  only  now  that  he  is  beginning  to  learn  some- 
thing about  them  himself”  — after  having  grown  gray,  perhaps,  in  the  constant  pursuit  of  that 
knowledge  — he,  possibly,  gets  for  his  honest  confession  the  credit  of  a jealous  churl,  or  selfish  miser 
of  the  cunning  he  possesses,  which  they  unwillingly  believe  him  incapable  of  imparting  by  a word. 

6.  Fortunately,  the  capital  required  in  an  outfit  for  painting  amounts  to  little.  The  day  has 
passed  away  of  color-boys  and  canvas-preparers,  encumbering  the  artist’s  studio,  as  our  well- 
supplied  shops  furnish  everything  that  a beginner  will  find  necessary.  Skimming  pots  of  boiling 
oil,  at  the  risk  of  setting  the  house  on  fire,  filtering  varnishes,  calcining  ochres,  and  wasting  time 
in  preparing  mixtures  and  grounds,  is  no  business  for  him  now.  It  is  all  very  right  and  proper 
that  he  should  know  how  such  things  are  done,  so  that,  upon  an  emergency,  he  may  be  able  to 
help  himself ; but  all  this  sort  of  knowledge  will  come  in  better  time. 

7.  The  methods  and  materials  of  the  great  masters  in  painting  were  unquestionably  most  sim- 
ple. We  may  read  a great  deal  about  Venetian  canvas,  absorbent  and  non-absorbent  grounds,  of 
pigments  and  oils,  vehicles  and  varnishes,  all  to  little  real  profit,  until  we  are  capable  of  estima- 
ting the  value  of  such  discussions  by  practical  knowledge.  A close  observation  of  the  w'orks  of 
those  who  have  reached  the  highest  excellence  in  the  use  of  colors,  distinctly  shows  rather  a tri- 
umph over,  than  subjection  to,  arbitrary  rules  of  method.  Many,  it  is  true,  may  have  indulged  in 
experimental  explorations  and  favorite  peculiarities,  of  either  material  or  process,  but  almost  inva- 
riably has  the  longest  and  best-tested  experience  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  most  simple. 

8.  He  w ho  seeks  the  surest  means  of  acquiring  knowledge  of  the  nature  of,  and  skill  in  the  use 
of  colors,  must  look  beyond  the  arcana  of  color-shops  and  the  crucible.  He  must  learn  the  value, 
power,  and  command  of  the  palette  by  its  use  — by  testing  it  with  nature,  and  the  candid  observa- 
tion and  investigation  of  the  productions  of  others.  Let  him  not  imagine,  because  an  artist  may 
have  produced  a great  and  successful  work  on  some  particular  ground,  or  by  certain  colors,  or  oils, 
or  mediums,  not  accessible  to  himself,  that  his  case  is  hopeless.  Others  may  have  done  as  well, 


213 


P A 1 N T I N G IN  0 I L - 0 O L 0 II  S . 


or  perhaps  better,  without  either.  Why  may  not  he  ? We  have  at  this  day  a far  greater  range  in 
choice  of  pigments  than  the  great  mastefsrof  color  ever  possessed  — how  much  the  better  for  art,  we 
may  profitably  ask  ourselves.  There  is  but  one  question  worth 
consideration  with  regard  to  either  color,  ground,  medium  or 
method.  Is  it  permanent,  and  reliable1?  It  so,  it  is  enough  to 
know  of  it,  and  after  that  to  know  how  to  employ  it  to  the  best 
advantage.  If  Titian  were  living  in  our  day,  he  could  find 
abundant  materials  in  any  village  color-shop,  or  house-painter’s 
drawer,  in  our  land,  with  the  aid  of  a piece  of  brown  sheeting, 
or  a well-seasoned  board,  to  set  the  quackery  of  the  world  to 
wondering.  The  secret  of  excellence  in  color,  as  in  all  art, 
lies  in  the  soul,  the  eye,  and  the  hand,  of  the  artist.  It  defies 
the  resisting  or  diverting  influences  of  circumstantial  difficulties, 
and  will  find  shape  and  utterance  by  any  means  it  may  select, 
or  be  compelled  to  employ. 


9.  Painting  in  Oil-Colors  deserves  precedence  of  all  other  methods,  not  only  as  most  effi- 
cient in  the  imitation  of  Nature,  but  as  that  by  which  a comprehension  of  the  general  principles  of 
application  of  color  to  design  may  be  most  directly  and  easily  acquired.  Were  this  opinion  based 
upon  mere  theoretical  reasoning,  and  not  upon  results  of  practical  proof,  we  might  feel  less  confi- 
dent than  we  do  in  recommending  it  as  the  best  method  of  painting  for  a beginner. 

The  consistency  of  colors,  as  they  are  generally  sold,  in  tubes  or  bladders,  is  about  as  they 
should  be  employed  ; and  the  fault,  so  common  to  beginners,  especially  with  such  as  have  previously 
dabbled  a little  in  water-colors — a propensity  to  render  them  more  fluid,  by  the  addition  of  more 
oil  — should  be  avoided.  This  habit  of  quackery  with  the  colors  often  arises  from  a disposition  to 
seek  sources  of  difficulty  in  their  management  anywhere  rather  than  in  our  own  weakness  5 and 
when  they  do  not  work,  under  the  brush,  as  we  desire,  or  imagine  they  should  do,  they  are  dosed 
with  oil,  spirits  of  turpentine,  megilp,  varnish,  and  one  vehicle  or  another,  into  a most  deplorable 
state.  It  is  therefore  the  safest  course  to  let  the  oils,  etc.,  alone,  as  much  as  possible,  and,  where  a 
necessity  of  mixing  more  oil  with  the  colors  may  occur,  to  effect  it  with  the  knife  on  the  palette.  It 
may  be  taken  as  a reliable  precept,  that  color,  in  a condition  that  it  will  not  stand  on  the  palette,  < 
which  is  held  almost  horizontally,  can  scarcely  be  in  a state  to  transfer  to  a picture  placed  nearly 
perpendicular  on  the  easel.  The  habit  which  impels  to  this  killing  doctoring  of  colors  is  apt,  also, 
before  we  are  aware  of  it,  to  fill  the  hand  to  inconvenience  with  brushes  and  pencils.  It  may  be 


214 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


taken  as  a certain  sign  that  a painter  is  getting  into  trouble  when  we  find  his  hand  thus  encum- 
bered, and  we  see  him  ransacking  his  drawer  for  this  tool  and  that,  to  help  him  out.  Against  the 
acquirement  of  these  time-wasting  and  spirit-vexing  vices,  the  surest  safeguards  are  early-induced 
habits  of  forethought,  order,  and  neatness.  It  is  only  in  apology  that  examples  of  carelessness  of 
many  professional  artists  in  this  respect  can  be  cited. 

10.  The  Palette  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  easy  to  the  hand,  and  especially  to  the  thumb, 
upon  which  it  may  at  first  press  uncomfortably.  It  may  be  made  of  mahogany,  walnut,  holly, 
maple,  or  any  other  hard  wood.  A palette  of  a medium  size,  about  twelve  inches  in  length, 
and  nine  in  width,  will  be  found  the  best  to  begin  with.  Its  selection,  with  regard  to  the  char- 
acter of  wood  of  which  it  is  made,  its  color,  shape,  etc.,  is  much  a matter  of  caprice  5 and  the 
kind  first  used  is  that  most  likely  to  be  afterward  preferred  and  retained.  Like  many  other  artis- 
tic conveniences,  it  is  only  by  use  and  trial  that  we  know  what  we  really  want  5 and,  therefore,  it 
is  better  to  supply  such  wants  gradually,  than  to  be  unnecessarily  encumbered  with  a great  variety 
of  tools  and  fixtures.  The  palette  should  always  be  cleansed,  after  use,  with  oil,  or  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. An  old,  well-kept,  and  well-treated  palette,  becomes  in  time  as  valued  as  the  cheering 
face  of  a tried  and  familiar  friend. 

11.  Brushes  and  Pencils  should  be  selected  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  artist.  A 
few  at  first  will  be  sufficient.  Bristle-brushes  are  best  for  laying  in  large  masses.  Sable  pencils 
serve  better  for  sharper  and  more  decided  touches.  Pencils  and  brushes  made  of  goat’s  hair  will 
be  found  very  convenient,  especially  where  it  is  desired  to  lay  on  a strong  body  of  color.  It  is  a 
common  error  with  beginners  to  use  too  small  brushes  and  pencils.  A large,  full  brush,  makes 
clearer  work,  preserves  the  tints  in  greater  purity,  and,  with  practice,  will  generally  be  found  most 
serviceable. 

A word  of  caution  may  not  here  be  out  of  place  against  the  use,  or  rather  the  abuse,  of  Soft- 
ners , as  they  are  called,  and  Badger-tooh , which,  however  they  may  be  well  employed,  are  often 
sadly  misapplied  in  reducing  the  picture  to  a flat  and  spiritless  smoothness,  in  the  mistaken  judg- 
ment of  many,  thus  attempting  to  produce  an  effect  of  finish : as  if  the  finish  of  a picture  consisted 
in  giving  a superficial  polish  to  its  surface  like  a tea-tray  ! The  absurdity  of  giving  to  all  objects, 
flesh,  draperies,  flowers,  sky,  water,  foliage,  architecture,  etc.,  the  same  texture,  would  seem  too 
palpable  to  require  comment,  did  it  not  so  much  prevail  as  to  mislead  the  inexperienced  into  vices 
of  manner,  against  which  they  should  be  cautioned.  Colors  should  be  tortured  as  little  as  possible 
on  the  canvas,  and  these  Blenders , Softners , or  Sweetners , often  prove  the  veriest  instruments  of 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


2 lj 

mischief,  in  unskilful  hands,  that  could  be  well  devised.  Beginners  may  be  safely  advised  to  let 
them  alone  — at  least,  to  learn  what  to  do  with  them,  by  first  learning  to  do  without  them. 

Brushes  and  pencils  are  best  cleansed  with  tepid  water  and  soap,  which  should  be  always  done 
after  use.  When  circumstances  prevent  this,  they  should  be  laid  in  oil  until  they  can  be  attended 
to.  Spirit  of  turpentine  injures  both  brushes  and  pencils,  as  it  renders  the  bristles  and  hair  brittle. 
Artists  sometimes  lay  their  brushes  in  olive  or  lamp  oil,  and  rinse  them  out  carefully  in  spirit  of 
turpentine,  or  linseed-oil,  before  again  using  them.  Both  lamp  and  olive  oil,  however,  are  dan- 
gerous to  have  about,  lest,  by  some  oversight  or  carelessness,  a brush  should  be  used  without 
being  perfectly  free  from  them  5 or  by  some  means  or  other  they  should  get  mixed  with  the  colors, 
and  the  ruin  of  a picture  be  the  consequence. 

12.  Easels  are  found  at  the  shops,  of  every  variety  of  shape,  material,  and  contrivance,  from 

the  most  simple  combination,  of  three  strips,  connected  at  the  top 
by  hinges,  with  holes  and  pegs  to  support  the  picture,  to  the  most 
elaborate  conveniences,  with  spring- catches,  shelves,  drawers,  etc. 
A good  easel  is  a luxury  in  which  the  amateur,  as  well  as  the  artist, 
may  be  well  allowed  to  indulge.  All  annoyances  and  inconveniences 
arising  from  bad  materials,  tools,  or  fixtures,  should  be  provided 
against,  especially  for  beginners,  as  they  will  find  quite  enough  to 
occupy  all  their  thought  and  engross  their  attention  in  their  work. 
Where  this  useful  piece  of  artistic  furniture  can  not  be  had  ready 
made,  the  ingenuity  of  any  village  carpenter  can  be  found  equal  to 

supply  the  requirement. 


13.  In  painting,  and,  when  practicable,  in  drawing,  a standing  position  is  most  to  be  recom- 
mended. In  very  minute  and  delicate  operations  it  is  almost  impossible,  however,  to  preserve,  in 
a standing  position,  that  steadiness  of  hand  which  may  be  required  5 but,  even  then,  a seat  or  stool 
sufficiently  high  to  bring  the  hand  and  eye  on  the  same  level  that  they  would  occupy  if  standing, 
will  be  found  most  convenient.  Thus  we  may  not  only  prevent  fatigue,  by  occasionally  relieving 
our  position,  but  be  able  more  readily  to  view  the  progress  of  our  work  at  a proper  distance  — a 
matter  of  more  importance  than  may  at  first  appear.  Although  necessarily  obliged  to  be  near  our 
picture,  in  its  execution,  the  effect  to  be  produced  when  viewed  at  its  proper  distance  should  never 
be  absent  from  the  mind.  In  this  respect,  the  remarks  which  have  been  made  in  the  chapter  on 
Perspective,  previously  given  (page  146),  will  be  found  equally  applicable  to  its  general  character- 


16 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


■ ' ; 


istics  as  to  its  perspective  arrangement.  It  is  evident  that,  in  a picture  calculated  to  be  viewed  at 
a distance  of  nine  inches,  a greater  degree  of  delicacy  and  elaboration  in  its  execution,  a disguise 
of  the  handling  of  the  artist,  and  traces  of  his  brush,  are  requisite,  than  in  one  destined  to  be  seen 
at  as  many  feet.  As  bolder  subjects,  on  larger  surfaces,  are  attempted,  a relative  degree  of  bolder 
handling,  masses  and  effects,  are  required. 

14.  Vain  as  it  may  be  to  offer  fixed  rules  with  regard  to  the  formation  of  style,  or  manner  of 
execution  in  painting,  these  hints  may  be  useful.  The  errors  arising  from  a want  of  proper  adap- 
tation of  manner  of  treatment  to  the  size  and  subject  of  a work,  are  evident  in  the  feebleness  which 
is  found  in  works  by  artists  who,  having  been  accustomed  to  treat  smaller  productions  with  ex- 
treme delicacy,  attempt  larger,  by  the  same  methods.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  may  have 
been  most  successful  in  the  management  of  bolder  subjects,  in  smaller  works,  requiring  greater 
delicacy  of  touch  and  neatness  of  handling  than  they  can  command,  rarely  satisfy  the  eye,  when 
necessarily  brought  in  closer  and  more  minute  examination  of  their  mechanical  execution.  That 
which  might  be  a small  and  finished  picture , is  received  and  valued  only  as  a spirited  sketch , in 
the  one  case  5 while,  in  the  other,  the  extreme  delicacy  of  treatment,  which  gave  perfection  to  a 
smaller  work,  becomes  feebleness  and  imbecility  in  the  vain  attempt  of  its  adaptation  to  a larger 
and  bolder  production. 

15.  The  Light,  for  painting  in  oil,  to  avoid  reflections,  and  for  other  reasons,  should  be  above 
the  level  of  the  eye,  and,  when  practicable,  fall  on  the  left  side ; as,  among  other  considerations, 
we  can  thus  have  a better  view  of  the  contents  of  our  palette,  and  be  less  likely  to  experience 
inconvenience  from  the  shadow  of  the  person  and  right  arm.  Still,  it  will  constantly  occur,  when 
painting  after  a model,  that  this  position  can  not  be  preserved.  Trial  and  experience  will  readily 
suggest  means  of  obviating  such  inconvenience.  Few,  comparatively,  for  whom  these  directions 
are  intended,  may  be  able  to  possess  the  advantages  of  a well-arranged  studio  5 but,  there  is  no 
reason,  on  that  account,  why  they  should  be  deterred  from  a trial  and  exercise  of  their  skill  in 
painting  in  oil.  Any  ordinary  room  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose,  and  all  the  better,  if  it 
have  a high  window,  with  a northern  aspect,  and  a dark,  neutral-tinted  wall.  A light  facing  the 
north  is  generally  preferred  and  used  by  painters,  as  less  variable,  and  less  subject  to  the  glare  of 
the  sun,  although  many  consider  a southern  exposure  more  advantageous ; in  which  case,  a blind 
of  tissue-paper,  or  muslin,  is  placed  over  it,  in  a manner  that  it  may  be  removed  in  cloudy  weather, 
or  on  other  occasions. 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


217 


16.  The  inculcations  to  neatness  which  have  been  urged  with  regard  to  the  palette,  etc.,  extend^ 
with  equal  force  to  all  and  every  arrangement  and  operation  of  painting  in  oil.  There  is  no  rea- 
son that  the  process  should  in  any  way  be  attended  with  annoyance  to  others,  or  to  ourselves,  nor 
that  amateurs,  in  the  indulgence  of  their  trial  of  it,  should  be  driven  to  the  garret  and  lumber- 
room.  There  is  in  its  practice  no  just  cause  of  terror  to  tidy  housewives,  nor  mothers  over- 
anxious about  delicate  hands  and  soiled  dresses;  and  still  less  that  the  injurious  effect  of  the 
“smell  of  paint”  should  be  made  a bugbear.  Neither  hands,  dresses,  nor  health,  need  suffer  in 
the  business.  The  pigments  in  themselves  are  harmless,  if  kept  to  their  right  use  and  place.  The 
daintiest  fingers  need  not  dread  their  contact,  even  if  there  was  a requirement  for  it.  The  occu- 
pation, in  itself,  if  rightly  pursued,  gives  more  healthful  exercise,  of  both  mind  and  body,  than  it  is 
commonly  credited  with ; and,  tempting  us,  as  it  does,  to  the  bright  fields  and  free  air  of  nature, 
with  a rejoicing  heart  and  glad  step,  leads  to  the  very  source  of  health.  The  practice  of  an  art,  as 
harmless  as  it  is  beautiful  — refining  in  its  influences  upon  the  mind,  developing  and  enlarging  its 
resources  of  enjoyment  and  usefulness  — is,  in  every  respect,  a far  worthier  occupation  for  the 
daughters  and  mothers  of  a land,  boastful,  as  ours,  of  its  enlightenment,  than  leaning  over  embroid- 
ering-frames,  in  the  production  of  worsted  slippers,  lamp-mats,  and  other  excuses  for  mental 
idleness  and  inactivity. 


17.  The  learner,  being  now  prepared  with  the  necessary  materials,  and  with  such  preliminary 
hints  as  have  suggested  themselves  as  most  useful  to  him,  may  venture  to  take  up  his  palette  for 

a beginning.  The  arrangement  of  the  colors  here 
proposed  should  be  considered  in  no  way  arbitrary, 
but  such  as  has  been  found  most  convenient,  and 
generally  adopted  by  professional  artists.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  they  are  so  arranged  as  to  preserve  a grada- 
tion from  light  to  dark,  or  from  white  to  black  — thus 
guarding  against  risk  of  injurious  contact,  preserving  their 
purity,  and  forming  an  easy  and  agreeable  scale  to  the  eve, 
as  well  as  for  other  considerations  which  will  appear  in  the  course  of  their  employment.  The 
colors  now  before  us  are  such  as  will  be  found  best  adapted  for  a first  attempt  in  painting  a head. 
They  are  twelve  in  number — less  would  do.  Rubens  is  said  to  have  used  very  few  colors.  With 
White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Ultramarine,  Madder-lake,  and  Asphaltum,  he  produced  all  his  tints,  occa- 
sionally heightening  them  with  Naples  Yellow,  Vermilion,  and  Black,  and  then  only  in  certain 

portions  of  the  draperies  and  accessories.  If  it  were  possible,  the  result  of  a still  more  simple 

28 


‘218 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


palette  is  observable  in  the  best  colorists  of  the  Italian  schools.  Fewer  even  might  suffice;  but, 
with  these  every  requirement  may  be  supplied  for  some  time  to  come,  as  it  is  better  that  familiarity 
with  the  more  solid  colors  should  be  acquired,  before  meddling  with  others  less  easy  of  manage- 
ment. Many  are  the  advantages  to  the  learner  of  habituating  himself  to  the  employment  of  few 
colors.  The  strength  of  the  palette  does  not  consist  in  a variety  of  pigments.  The  fewer  that  are 
employed,  the  more  easily  are  the  suggestive  accidents  of  their  combinations  remembered  and 
recoverable.  As  he  advances,  he  may  venture  to  increase  their  number ; but  the  result  of  almost 
all  such  experiments  will  be  to  bring  him  back  more  confidently  to  the  simplicity  of  his  beginning. 

18.  (1.)  White  will  be  found  occupying  the  most  prominent  position  on  the  palette.  It  is 
generally  placed  at  the  head,  because  required  in  a larger  quantity  than  the  others,  and,  being 
heavy  in  itself,  serves  to  keep  an  easier  balance  of  the  palette,  besides  being  more  accessible. 
KremleVs  White , sometimes  passing  under  the  name  of  Silver  White , is  most  generally  used.  It 
has  not  the  body  of  Flake  White,  or  pure  White  Lead,  but  is  considerably  brighter  than  either.  Its 
general  acceptation  among  artists,  all  the  world  over,  is  the  best  evidence  in  its  favor. 

(2.)  Naples  Yellow  varies  in  its  degree  of  intensity,  as  well  as  delicacy.  The  paler  and 
more  tender  tint  will  be  found  best  for  flesh : and  such  as  falls  into  a more  lemon,  and  sometimes 
even  brassy  hue,  may  be  better  suited  for  landscape  and  other  purposes.  Although  we  have 
introduced  this  color  to  the  learner,  he  should  be  cautioned  in  regard  to  its  peculiar  qualities. 
The  chemical  properties  of  Naples  Yellow  require,  in  both  grinding  and  mixing  it  on  the  palette, 
that  an  ivory  or  horn  knife  should  be  employed  instead  of  a steel  one.  It  may  be  equally  danger- 
ous to  combine  it  with  other  colors  imperfectly  prepared  from  iron ; and,  since  the  introduction 
of  cadmium,  it  is  so  easily  and  comparatively  cheaply  imitated  by  mixtures,  that  it  is  rarely  to  be 
found  of  a pure  quality. 

(3.)  Yellow  Ochre,  when  pure,  combines  in  flesh-tints  in  a most  delightful  and  manageable 
manner,  and,  from  its  permanent  and  reliable  character,  may  be  regarded  as  invaluable.  A little 
trial  and  use  of  this  color  will  soon  make  it  a favorite,  and  few  palettes  are  seen  without  it.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  yellow  ochres,  under  the  names  of  Roman,  Spanish,  Egyptian,  Golden, 
etc.,  varying  in  their  intensity  and  degree  of  warmth.  All  the  pure  ochres,  by  the  process  of 
calcination,  become  darker  and  more  red. 

' p 

(4.)  Venetian  Red,  or  Naples  Red  ( Terra  Rossa ),  may  both  be  considered  standard  pig- 
ments, and  valuable  for  flesh-tints,  as  forming  a carnation  applicable  under  almost  all  circumstances. 
The  former  possesses  more  body,  or  intensity,  the  latter  more  delicacy.  The  great  difficulty  with 
regard  to  these  colors  is  to  procure  them  of  uniform  character  and  purity  at  the  shops. 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


219 


(5.)  Vermilion  (either  Chinese , French , or  Dutch , each  of  which  varies  in  peculiarity  of 
tint)  is  a dangerous  color  for  beginners,  as  it  requires  much  tempering,  subduing,  and  reducing,  to 
bring  it  into  harmony,  especially  in  delicate  flesh-tints.  Still,  it  may  be  made  very  valuable  in 
heightening  the  brilliancy  of  carnations,  etc.  It  should  be  touched  with  caution,  and  used  spar- 
ingly, until  capacity  for  its  judicious  management  is  attained  by  practice.  To  these  might  be 
added  Indian  Red , for  its  great  value  5 but,  like  Vermilion,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  manage.  It 
is  so  intense,  that  a little  goes  very  far  in  combination  with  other  pigments  ; and  if  it  once  gets, 
as  it  were,  the  run  of  the  palette,  it  is  very  apt  to  make  its  way  all  over  it,  and  into  every  other 
tint,  before  we  are  aware  of  it  — a difficulty  likely  to  prove  no  slight  embarrassment  in  unpractised 
and  unskilful  hands. 

(6.)  Raw  Siena  takes  rank  with  yellow  ochre  for  its  general  utility.  It  is  found  of  various 
shades  and  degrees  of  intensity.  It  should  be  used  with  caution  in  the  lighter  or  flesh  tints,  if 
at  all. 

(7.)  Burnt  Siena  is  a pigment  of  great  value.  When  of  good  quality,  it  may  be  made  to 
supply  the  place  of  many  of  the  warmer  lakes,  whose  doubtful  character  for  permanency  renders 
them  always  suspicious.  There  is  scarcely  another  color,  except  white,  that  will  be  found  so 
generally  serviceable  as  Burnt  Siena;  and  the  sooner  its  acquaintance  is  made,  and  its  power  of 
service  tested,  the  better. 

(8  and  9.)  Raw  and  Burnt  Umber  are  both  favorites  with  artists,  although  they  have  the 
reputation  of  turning  darker  in  time  — a peculiarity  common,  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  to  all 
the  earths,  particularly  those  which  require  a great  deal  of  oil  to  render  them  of  proper  consistency 
in  grinding  and  working.  Both  the  Umbers  are  rapid  driers. 

(10.)  Terra-Verde  is  of  an  olive  hue,  and,  when  combined  with  White,  falls  into  a delicate 
pearly  tiffi)  which  may  be  increased  by  Ultramarine  Ashes,  or  Ultramarine,  and  is  admirably 
suited  for  breaking  into  and  cooling  the  carnations,  or  in  forming  half-tints  or  shadows,  by  slight 
additions  of  Venetian  or  Naples  Red,  or  Burnt  Siena. 

(11.)  Ultramarine,  either  the  pure  preparation  from  Lapis-Lazuli  (which,  on  account  of 
its  high  price,  is  always  difficult  to  procure,  and  hence  subject  to  adulteration),  or  its  recently- 
discovered  substitute,  French  and  German  Ultramarine,  is  rarely  required  to  be  used  in  painting 
flesh,  except  sparingly.  The  Ultramarine  Ashes  serve  better,  and  are  invaluable,  not  only  in  paint- 
ing flesh,  but  in  almost  everything  else  where  a delicate  cool  tint  is  required.  The  preparations 
of  Cobalt  Blues  are  esteemed  and  employed  by  many  artists.  The  French  and  German  Ultra- 
marines  are  much  used  by  landscape-painters.  They  are  certainly  safer  to  trust  to  the  hands  of 
a beginner  than  either  Prussian  or  Antwerp  Blue , as  both,  from  their  strength,  especially  the 


t 


220  PAINTING  IN  OIL - COLORS. 

former,  are  liable  to  lead  into  similar  difficulties  as  those  above  alluded  to  with  regard  to  Indain 
Red,  besides  being  in  other  respects  unmanageable. 

(12.)  Ivory  Black.  Intense  blacks  are  seldom  if  ever  required,  especially  in  the  early 
stages  of  a picture.  In  preparing  a palette  for  painting  flesh,  the  principal  use  of  Ivory  Black  will 
be  found  in  making  out  the  grays  and  half-tints,  where  Ultramarine  Ashes  can  not  be  procured. 
There  is  possibly  no  color  the  value  and  power  of  which  require  so  much  time  and  use,  to  become 
familiar  with  it,  as  Ivory  Black  5 and  the  more  we  know  of  it,  the  more  must  it  be  appreciated. 
This  black  should  be  ground  as  fine  as  possible  j otherwise,  it  is  a very  slow  drier. 

19.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  speak  of  the  methods  of  grinding  and  preparing  these  colors, 
as  they  are  found  at  the  color-shops,  put  up  in  bladders,  or  (thanks  to  the  admirable  invention  of 
our  countryman  Mr.  Rand)  in  metallic  tubes,  in  which^pey  may  be  kept  fresh  for  almost  any 
length  of  time.  There  is  one  matter,  however,  which  concerns  all  who  have  occasion  for  their  use. 
More  care  should  be  bestowed  upon  the  grinding  of  them  than  is  generally  done  by  colormen. 
The  best  qualities  of  many  of  the  colors,  such  as  the  Sienas,  Blacks,  Cassel-Earth,  Vandyke 
Brown,  and  many  others,  are  lost  for  want  of  proper  grinding  5 besides,  on  that  account,  they  are 
prevented  from  drying  as  readily  as  they  should.  If  those  who  use  them  would  make  common 
cause  in  the  matter,  by  exciting  a competition  among  grinders  and  venders,  the  evil  might  soon  be 
corrected.  A small  ground-glass  slab  and  muller  will  always  be  found  an  acquisition  to  the 
artist^  table.  It  may  be  frequently  wanted  for  grinding  small  quantities  of  Lakes,  Ultramarines, 
and  other  delicate  colors,  at  a moment’s  requirement.  The  Lakes  are  all  slow  driers,  and  should 
be  ground  with  Drying-Oil. 

20.  Having  indicated  a sufficient  number  of  colors  to  the  learner  for  a beginning  — many 
more,  indeed,  than  are  absolutely  necessary  — the  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  prepare,  from  them, 
such  combinations  as  the  general  character  of  the  model  may  suggest.  Many  artists  rely  entirely 
upon  the  brush,  or  pencil,  in  forming  these  combinations  j but  it  requires  a degree  of  expertness 
and  familiarity,  in  such  use  of  it,  not  to  be  expected  in  beginners  and  they  may  be  safely  advised 
against  the  attempt.  It  is  far  better  that  the  tints  for  the  general  and  principal  masses  should  be 
prepared  on  the  palette  with  the  knife,  trusting  to  the  aid  of  the  brush  only  in  bringing  them 
together  on  the  canvas  with  as  much  clearness  and  precision  as  possible. 

21.  Let  us  suppose  the  model,  whether  it  be  a picture  or  living  head , before  us.  The  first 
important  consideration  is  a decision  upon  the  general  character  of  the  prevailing  masses,  receiving 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


221 


the  broadest  effect  of  light,  in  which  the  local  tints  are  most  distinctly  indicated.  This  should  be 
made  without  immediate  regard  to  the  highest  points  of  light,  which,  in  most  instances,  if  the  light 
fall  from  above,  will  be  found  touching  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  forehead,  repeated  still  more 
decidedly  upon  the  end  of  the  nose,  running  in  a more  or  less  subdued  tone  along  its  ridge,  and 
slightly  marking  prominent  parts  of  the  features  in  modified  gradations.  Having  prepared  this 
general  tint  on  the  palette,  in  a sufficient  quantity,  consider  it  as  the  basis  upon  which  to  make 
out  whatever  variety  of  tints  may  be  required,  without  again  having  recourse  to  white,  except  for 
the  higher  lights,  which  should  even  then  be  very  sparingly  applied,  and  only  after  all  the  masses 
are  well  determined,  and  even  laid  in.  Careful  trial  will  show  how  much  more  directly  and  har- 
moniously, by  such  means,  an  approach  to  truth  may  be  attained,  than  if  for  each  tint  separate 
combinations,  based  upon  white,  were  employed.  It  is  very  desirable  that  this  method  of  prepar- 
ing compound  tints  on  the  palette  should  be  perfectly  understood.  It  will  be  found,  not  only  to 
obviate  many  practical  difficulties  and  embarrassments,  invariably  encountered  in  the  beginning, 
but  also  to  exert  a happy  influence  in  maturing  the  judgment,  and  in  early  training  the  eye  to  cor- 
rectness and  just  appreciation  of  the  local  value,  degree  of  subordination  to  one  another,  gradations 
and  harmony  of  colors.  It  may  be  made,  not  only  of  practical  value,  but  suggestive  of  theoretical 
truths,  in  the  research  of  which  the  mind  can  not  receive  direction  too  early. 

22.  To  explain  the  method  more  clearly.  Let  us  suppose  ( a ) a flesh-tint  formed  by  a com- 
bination of  White  with  Venetian  or  Naples  Red,  more  or  less  increased  in  warmth  by  Yellow  Ochre 

or  Naples  Yellow,  according  to  the  character  of  our  model. 
From  this,  as  a basis,  we  prepare  a gradation  of  tints  (b)  by 
further  increasing  its  intensity,  as  may  be  suggested  by  the 
study  of  the  model.  We  next  proceed  to  make  combina- 
tions from  these  tints,  by  the  addition  of  neutralizing  colors, 
such  as  Ultramarine,  Terra-verde,  slight  portions  of  Ivory 
Black,  and  sometimes  Raw  Umber,  in  small  quantities,  until 
we  have  a set  of  neutral  tints  ( c ).  Thus,  again,  in  like  manner,  may  be  formed  the  half-shade, 
and  stronger  shadow-tints  (d  ),  by  a more  liberal  employment  of  the  Umbers,  Burnt  Siena,  and  such 
like  pigments  — observing,  always,  that  they  be  kept  clear  and  removed  from  blackness  5 for  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  blackness , or  opacity  in  flesh,  under  any  circumstances.  For  the  high  lights, 
we  may  have  equal  recourse  to  the  prevailing  mass  (a),  from  which  our  general  carnation-tints 
have  been  prepared,  by  heightening  its  power.  We  have  left  this  brightest  light-tint  to  the  last  ( e ), 
because  it  is  better  that  it  should  be  reserved  for  the  completing  process,  and  then  sparingly, 


222 


PAINTING  IN  01L-C0L0ES. 


and  cautiously,  yet  decidedly  applied. — From  a palette  thus  prepared  the  tints  may  be  transferred 
to  the  canvas  with  a certainty  and  decision  of  touch,  retaining  them  in  their  purity  and  clearness, 
with  much  greater  command,  than  if  their  combinations  were  attempted  entirely  by  the  brush. 
We  desire  it  to  be  distinctly  understood  that  these  directions  are  intended  only  for  those  who  are 
making  a beginning,  and  are  as  yet  unpractised  in  the  use  of  oil-colors.  If  we  have  succeeded  in 
making  our  meaning  intelligible,  in  relation  to  the  preparation  of  a palette  for  painting  a Head,  the 
suggestion  of  its  availability  to  all  other  subjects,  modified  and  adapted  to  their  peculiar  require- 
ments, will  be  sufficiently  impressive  to  indicate  to  the  learner  its  universal  applicability. 

23.  Previous  to  the  preparation  of  the  palette,  it  is  presumed  that  an  accurately-indicated 
drawing  of  the  subject  has  been  made  upon  the  canvas — upon  which  any  amount  of  time  and 
careful  study  that  may  be  bestowed  will  be  well  applied,  not  only  by  securing  this  necessary  basis 
of  after-operations,  but  in  making  us  familiar  with  the  object  of  imitation  before  we  take  the  colors 
in  hand.  Some  artists  trust  to  the  brush,  almost  entirely,  in  modelling  out  their  subjects ; but  its 
successful  management  involves  a degree  of  facility  and  certainty  of  hand  possessed  by  few.  It  is 
by  no  means  a prevailing  custom,  even  with  the  most  experienced.  Others,  again,  recommend  a 
generalized  indication  of  the  subject  in  only  two  colors,  such  as  Umber  and  White,  or  Gray;  while 
some  prefer  warmer  and  more  glowing  preparations.  Many  give  to  each  part  of  their  picture 
such  preparatory  treatment  as  they  may  consider  best  suited  to  secure  the  results  they  desire  to 
produce  in  finishing.  This  is  what  is  called  “ Dead  Coloring .”  All  these,  however,  are  niceties 
of  process,  the  comprehension  of  which,  either  in  their  objects,  practical  application,  or  results, 
requires  more  knowledge  than  the  learner  can  hope  to  attain  by  any  other  means  than  study, 
experience,  and  gradual  acquirement. 

24.  Care  should  be  observed,  in  beginning  to  lay  on  the  tints,  not  to  overload  them.  Into  this 
error  the  inexperienced  are  very  apt  to  fall.  However  desirable  it  may  be  to  secure  a solid  body, 
or  impasta , of  color,  it  is  better  to  effect  it  by  degrees.  The  masses  should  be  laid  in  first,  leaving 
the  high  lights  and  darkest  parts  for  the  last.  A little  experience  will  show  how  much  may  be 
done  by  a few  decided  and  studied  touches  after  the  previously-applied  tints  have  become  some- 
what set,  or  tacky ; and  practice  will  soon  teach  what  allowance  to  make,  and  what  reserve  to 
retain,  for  the  purpose.  Thus,  for  example,  the  clear  and  delicate  carnations  may  be  broken  over 
half-tints,  and  even  in  shadows,  with  much  effectiveness — the  sky-tints,  mingled  with  portions  of 
the  landscape,  diffusing  airiness,  and  giving  the  effect  of  distances,  reflections  heightened  where 
necessary,  and  more  prominent  parts  forced  to  their  just  degree  of  strength,  without  disturbing  the 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


223 


harmonious  keeping  of  the  whole.  Much  of  the  difficulty  and  disappointment  experienced  by 
beginners  in  the  use  of  oil-colors  might  be  saved  if  they  would  only  exercise  a proper  degree  of 
patience  with  their  work,  and  not  be  too  prodigal  of  their  tints  at  first,  daubing  away,  as  they  may 
be  often  observed  to  do,  right  and  left,  without  purpose  or  meaning,  as  if  there  were  nothing 
required  beyond  dispensing  the  material  to  the  picture,  and  leaving  it  to  make  itself.  When  color 
is  first  applied  to  a smoothly-prepared  canvas,  or  upon  a previous  painting,  it  does  not  adhere  so 
firmly,  nor  is  it  in  other  respects  as  manageable,  as  it  will  become  in  the  progress  of  the  sitting. 
Thus,  the  last  half-hour  of  a day’s  labor  is,  not  unfreauently,  the  most  valuable  to  the  artist,  and 
he  should  hold  himself  in  readiness  to  take  advantage  of  it. 

25.  Whatever  objections  may  be  urged  against  the  method  of  painting  “at  once,”  or,  as  it  is 
technically  termed,  “ a la  prima — in  which  it  is  endeavored  to  accomplish  as  much  as  can  be 
done  at  once,  leaving  as  little  as  possible  for  an  after-process — it  is  the  safest  for  one  as  yet  a 
novice  in  the  use  of  color.  Unsatisfactory  as  it  may  be  in  itself,  as  a method,  and  inadequate 
to  more  than  a partial  development  of  the  resources  of  the  palette,  it  is,  nevertheless,  a secure 
basis  for  progress.  Let  the  learner  bear  this  strongly  impressed  upon  his  mind : although  recom- 
mended as  the  best  to  adopt  in  the  beginning , it  must  be  regarded  by  no  means  as  an 
ultimate  aim',  for,  by  it,  alone,  the  higher  excellences  of  color  are  unattainable.  When 
he  may  have  become,  by  the  practice  of  more  simple  methods,  familiar  with  his  materials,  and 
have  gained  insight  to  the  peculiar  character  of  the  pigments,  with  some  degree  of  command 
over  them,  he  may  venture  more  safely.  When  he  shall  have  learned  to  see  things  rightly,  and 
to  hold  under  his  control  the  most  available  expedients  of  his  art,  in  giving  expression  to  his  con- 
clusions, a well-defined  way  to  excellence  lies  fair  and  open  before  him,  and  success  must  more 
certainly  attend  his  efforts  than  if  he  had  involved  himself  in  difficulties,  in  the  beginning,  for 
which  he  was  unequal. 

26.  The  professional  artist  may  often  feel  inclined,  perhaps,  to  call  in  question  and  debate 
opinions  advanced  upon  the  subject  of  method  in  the  use  of  color — favorite,  as  it  is,  of  all  the 
themes  of  contention  among  theorists  and  abstractionists : but,  once  for  all,  let  it  be  understood, 
that  no  desire  of  wordy  combat  has  seduced  us  from  an  unpretending  position  to  assume  dictation 
in  matters  or  methods  of  art;  nor  have  we  the  presumption  to  claim  any  exclusive  right  to  the 
field  against  such  as  possess  better  and  easier  means  of  making  its  ways  accessible.  The  ambition 
of  our  design  reaches  not  beyond  securing  to  the  learner  a reliable  starting-point.  It  was  the 
impulse  of  our  labors  at  the  beginning ; has  ever  been  the  leading  purpose  of  their  continuation  5 


224 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


and  the  hope  of  their  being  made  available  to  others,  in  removing  the  most  obvious  difficulties  that 
embarrass  the  way  of  its  attainment,  will  cheer  us  to  the  end. 

27.  Whatever  reliance  may  be  placed  on  practice,  in  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the 
palette,  and  in  directing  their  skilful  application,  there  are  many  hints  in  regard  to  the  use  of  oil- 
colors  which  may  be  useful  to  the  learner  even  at  the  outset.  First  of  all,  in  importance,  he  should 
be  reminded  that,  by  practice,  more  is  meant  than  the  mere  covering  of  yards  of  canvas,  which 
may  be  effected  to  very  little  profit,  unless  accompanied  by  constant  investigation  a,nd  study,  and 
unless  the  results  of  such  investigation  and  study  are  made  directly  available  by  trial  and  appli- 
cation. 

28.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  color  of  the  ground,  or  preparation,  upon  which  pictures 
are  painted,  influences  more  or  less  their  general  tone,  which  becomes  still  more  apparent  by  the 
action  of  time,  in  proportion  as  such  influence  has  been  more  or  less  counteracted  by  a body  of 
color.  Thus,  many  of  the  works  of  Guido,  thinly  painted  on  a gray  preparation,  whatever  they 
might  have  been  when  first  produced,  have  become  offensively  cold ; and  the  works  of  the  Poussins, 
and  others,  deplorably  dark  and  obscure,  from  their  having  employed  a ground  of  a dark-red  or 
brownish  tint.  Brilliancy  and  clearness  of  color  are  always  best  secured  by  progressing  from  light 
to  dark  j and,  therefore,  the  best  colorists  generally,  if  not  invariably,  use  a light  ground,  and  lay 
in  the  preparation,  or  under-tints,  lighter  than  those  employed  in  finishing.  By  some,  a method 
has  been  pursued  of  going  over  and  over  by  repeated  operations,  gradually  increasing  their  depth 
and  force  of  color.  Others  paint  and  model  out  their  subject,  upon  a slight  preparation,  with  a 
strong  body  of  color,  or  impasta  j which,  by  a judicious  use  of  driers,  becoming  slightly  tacky  in 
the  process,  admits  of  a very  high  degree  of  finish  and  elaboration,  even  at  once : and,  by  repeat- 
edly going  over,  or  “glazing,”  as  it  is  technically  termed,  the  whole,  or  parts,  with  transparent 
colors  afterward,  more  or  less  thinly  applied,  they  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  tints — giving 
thereby  transparency  and  force  to  the  shadows,  and  bringing  the  whole  to  an  agreeable  and 
harmonious  tone. 

29.  Glazing  is  a term  generally  used  to  express  the  passing  of  a darker,  and  usually-implied 
transparent  color,  over  a lighter.  Most  of  the  colors  employed  as  glazers  are  in  themselves  more 
or  less  transparent — such  as  yellow  ochre,  raw  and  burnt  siena,  ultramarine,  all  the  lakes,  asphal- 
tum,  etc.  But  all  colors,  except  white,  are  capable  of  being  used  as  glazers  under  certain  circum- 
stances, by  giving  them  a degree  of  transparency,  by  the  addition  of  a greater  or  less  quantity  of 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


225 


drying-oil,  or  of  boiled  oil  mixed  with  mastic  varnish,  or  some  other  transparent  vehicle.  Thus 
treated,  there  is  scarcely  a color  which  may  not  be  made  to  serve  as  a glazer ; although,  whenever 
it  can  be  done,  it  is  better  to  employ  those  possessing  in  themselves  the  qualification  of  transpa- 
rency. 

30.  Megilp  is  the  name  under  which  is  generally  known  the  combination  of  drying-oil  and 
mastic  varnish,  to  which  allusion  has  just  been  made.  It  will  be  found,  by  mixing  strong  drying- 
oil  and  mastic  varnish  together,  that  they  form  a substance  about  the  consistency  of  well-prepared 
colors — extremely  transparent,  agreeable  under  the  brush,  an  admirable  dryer,  and,  upon  many 
considerations,  a valuable  accession  to  the  palette.  Its  injudicious  application  has  caused  it  to  be 
regarded  with  suspicion,  if  not  to  be  unjustly  classed  among  nostrums  to  be  avoided.  In  megilp, 
used  with  discretion,  there  is  nothing  to  be  dreaded.  One  very  important  point  should  never  be 
lost  sight  of  in  the  process  of  a picture.  All  its  parts  should  be  made  to  dry  as  equally  as  possible, 
and  to  this  end  such  colors  as  are  in  themselves  slow  dryers  should  be  assisted  by  some  vehicle 
readily  combining  with  the  oils  in  which  they  are  ground,  and  possessing  in  itself  no  injurious 
effect  on  them. 

31.  The  employment  of  heterogeneous  mixtures  is  in  every  way  dangerous.  One  oil , or 
vehicle , should  he  used  throughout  a picture , as  well  with  regard  to  the  advantages  derived  from 
such  a course  in  immediate  results,  as  the  action  of  time  upon  it.  The  fact  is  well  authenticated, 
that  some  of  the  finest  heads  by  Vandyke,  and  other  distinguished  portrait-painters,  were  painted 
up  at  once,  apparently  at  one  sitting.  On  close  examination  of  such  pictures,  undeniable  evidences 
of  the  employment  of  a strong  drier  are  plainly  discoverable.  They  are  in  many  instances  charged 
with  color  in  a manner  — maintaining  the  utmost  purity  of  tint — one  over  the  other,  broken  and 
blended — with  a facility  of  management  leaving  little  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  vehicle  employed 
in  their  execution.  If  an  after-process  has  been  resorted  to,  it  has  been  in  the  employment  of 
glazers,  for  the  more  perfect  development  of  such  parts  as  may  have  seemed  to  require  greater 
force,  and  in  reducing  the  whole  to  an  agreeable  and  harmonious  tone.  Rarely,  in  this  after,  or 
completing  process,  can  the  use  of  opaque  colors  be  detected,  and,  if  at  all,  almost  invariably  with 
injurious  consequences. 

32.  u Linseed-oil  is  the  best  of  all  oil  it  even  surpasses  nut-oil,  which  is  more  fat,  and  that 
°f  poppy-seed,  which  becomes  so,  and  thickens.”  Thus  said  Vandyke,  the  pupil  and  favorite 
scholar  of  Rubens ; one,  above  all  others,  most  familiar  with  the  practices  and  expedients  of  an 

29 


22B 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


age  prolific  in  great  colorists;  and  whose  works,  at  this  day,  bear  testimony  to  the  accuracy  of  his 
conclusions — sufficient  in  itself  to  secure  its  general  and  unquestionable  acceptation.  Equally 
strong  evidence  has  been  left  to  us  in  favor  of  mastic-varnish ; and,  as  this  preparation  is  still,  as 
ever,  the  most  generally-received  and  almost  universally-adopted  varnish,  for  bringing  out  and  sus- 
taining the  results  of  the  artist’s  work  when  completed,  there  can  exist  no  just  cause  of  fear  in  the 
employment  of  either,  with  such  discretion  as  will  be  inculcated  and  impressed  upon  the  learner  by 
practice  and  experience.  Linseed-oil  and  mastic-varnish  may  be  considered  adequate  to  all  the 
requirements  of  a medium  or  vehicle  for  color — the  former  increased  in  its  drying  qualities  in 
such  degree  as  may  be  necessary,  according  to  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  the  latter  prepared  in  the  most  simple  manner.* 


33.  The  process  of  glazing  having  been  sufficiently  explained,  that  of  scumbling , which  is  un 
derstood  to  be  its  opposite — that  is,  the  passing  of  a thin  layer  of  fighter  over  a darker  tint — will 
be  readily  comprehended.  As  brilliancy  and  depth  are  the  results  of  glazing,  so  less  decision  of  local 


* Although  it  may  bo  seldom  required  for  the  artist  to  prepare 
drying-oil  or  varnish,  it  may  be  well  that  he  should  know  an  approved 
method  of  doing  so. 

For  Drying-Oil.  — Take,  say,  a pint  of  the  purest  linseed-oil  — 
put  it  in  an  earthen  pipkin,  that  will  stand  the  action  of  heat,  without 
risk  of  breaking.  For  this  quantity,  a pound  of  litharge,  and  an  equal 
quantity  in  bulk  (not  in  weight)  of  burnt  umber,  will  be  required.  The 
latter  must  be  crushed  to  small  pieces,  but  not  reduced  to  powder.  The 
litharge  and  umber  should  then  be  tied  up  in  one  or  more  bags,  made 
of  old  linen,  and  suspended  in  the  oil  so  as  not  to  touch  either  the  sides 
or  bottom  of  the  pipkin.  Place  the  whole  over  a slow  charcoal-fire,  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  bring  the  oil  to  a boiling-heat,  but  as  nearly  as 
possible  up  to  that  point  without  reaching  it.  It  must  be  kept  to  this 
until  the  rising  to  the  surface  of  minute  bubbles  ceases  (which  may  take 
from  three  to  four  hours),  when  the  oil  will  have  assumed  a rich  brown- 
ish tint.  The  bags,  with  their  contents,  are  then  to  be  taken  out,  and 
the  fire  suffered  to  go  down  gradually.  When  the  extreme  heat  has 
somewhat  subsided,  a wineglassful  of  good  copal-varnish,  mixed  with 
half  a wineglass  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  may  be  added.  This  must 
be  done  with  caution,  lest  it  take  fire.  If  any  appearance  of  smoke 
arises  when  the  spirits  of  turpentine  comes  in  contact  with  the  oil,  We 
may  know  that  the  oil  is  still  too  hot.  If  it  is  desired  to  increase  the 
drying  quality  of  the  oil,  a gentle  heat  may  be  continued  for  some  time 
longer ; but  great  care  should  be  taken  that  it  never  be  allowed  to  gain 
sufficient  to  crisp  a feather  dipped  in  it. 

When  oil,  by  the  action  of  too  great  heat,  or  by  taking  fire,  has  as- 
sumed a dull  greenish  hue,  it  is  worthless  for  the  purposes  of  the  palette. 
The  small  quantity  of  copal-varnish  has  a tendency  to  make  it  dry  thor- 
oughly, and  to  prevent  the  colors  mixed  with  it,  when  loaded  on  the 
canvas,  from  being  crimped  or  wrinkled. 


It  is  recommended  that  the  process  be  conducted,  if  possible,  in  the 
open  air,  as  safest,  and  to  avoid  the  disagreeable  odor  which  will  be 
thrown  off  in  the  earlier  stage  of  the  experiment. 

The  oil  should  be  allowed  to  cool  gradually,  and  to  remain  some 
days  to  settle  ; when  it  should  be  drawn  oft'  carefully,  and  kept  in 
well-corked  glass  bottles.  Thus  treated,  it  will  not  only  keep  well  for 
any  length  of  time,  but  be  improved  thereby. 

When  a larger  quantity  is  required,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to 
increase  the  proportions. 

No  iron,  copper,  or  metal  subject  to  be  affected  by  vegetable  acids, 
should  be  suffered  to  come  in  contact  with  the  oil  in  the  process. 

Mastic- Varnisii  is  prepared  by  dissolving  gum-mastic  in  spirits  of 
turpentine,  or,  better  still,  in  the  rectified  spirit,  or  camphene.  This 
may  be  effected  by  simply  placing  it  in  the  sun,  in  a clear  glass  bottle, 
for  several  days  — repeatedly  shaking  it  until  the  mastic  is  dissolved. 
The  varnish  may  then  be  drawn  off  carefully,  or  filtered  through  blot- 
ting-paper. AVhen  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  process,  crushed  glass 
may  be  added — the  particles  of  glass  preventing  the  mastic  from  mas- 
sing together,  and  assisting  its  dissolution  by  the  turpentine.  Varnish 
may  be  made  more  rapidly  by  placing  the  vessel  which  contains  it  in  a 
sand-bath,  or  in  another  of  boiling  water ; but,  from  the  dangerous  na- 
ture of  turpentine,  when  brought  within  the  reach  of  fire,  under  any 
circumstances,  the  inexperienced  may  be  justly  cautioned  against  ven- 
turing upon  any  experiment  of  the  kind.  As  to  the  proportions  of 
mastic  and  turpentine,  the  best  method  is,  first  to  cover  the  quantity 
of  gum  with  turpentine,  and,  after  so  much  of  it  is  dissolved  as  it  will 
receive,  to  draw  off  the  varnish.  Then  add  more  turpentine  to  the 
gum,  and  repeat  the  process.  The  stronger  preparation  will  be  found 
best  for  making  megilp  — the  weaker  for  varnishing. 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


227 


t:nt,  and  that  peculiar  effect  of  air  and  distance  which  may  be  desirable  in  preserving  the  aerial  per- 
spective of  color  in  a picture,  are  often  more  readily  attainable  by  scumbling.  It  should  always, 
however,  be  resorted  to  with  caution,  lest  opacity  should  be  the  consequence  of  its  injudicious  appli- 
cation. It  may  be  received  as  a reliable  principle,  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the  whole  process  of  a 
picture  should  be  from  light  to  dark.  Even  when  the  principal  painting  or  modelling  (of  a head, 
for  example)  is  effected  at  one  sitting,  it  is  better  to  begin  with  lighter  local  tints  than  may  be 
desirable  to  use  in  finishing  5 and,  no  matter  what  degree  of  loading,  or  impasta  of  color,  may  be 
employed,  not  to  start  with  too  liberal  use  of  it.  Once  having  a well-secured  preparation,  however 
faintly,  still  accurately  and  decidedly  indicated,  we  can  then  see  more  clearly  what  we  have  to  do, 
and  accomplish  it  in  a more  easy  and  masterly  manner.  However  difficult  the  preservation  of  this 
gradual  increase  of  the  tints  and  tones  of  a picture  may  be,  the  principle  holds  good  as  a general 
and  reliable  rule.  As  a general  rule,  subject  to  exception,  it  should  be  regarded.  Such  excep- 
tions, however,  will  be  found  rarely  of  necessary  occurrence,  and  are  allowable  as  available  expe- 
dients, of  which  practical  experience  only  can  give  command, 

34.  It  is  always  safest  to  allow  one  layer  of  color  to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  another  is 
applied  over  it.  For  this  reason,  a picture,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  its  progress,  can  not 
be  too  freely  exposed  to  the  drying  influences  of  both  air  and  even  sunshine.  If  any  variation  in 
the  drying  qualities  of  a medium  be  allowable,  the  stronger  should  rather  be  employed  in  the  com- 
mencement than  in  the  completion  of  a picture.  Much,  if  not  all,  of  the  mischievous  results  of  the 
injudicious  employment  of  rapidly  and  firmly  drying  oils  and  varnishes,  may  be  attributed  to  want 
of  proper  care  and  precaution  in  this  respect.  The  cracking  of  a picture  is  caused  by  a prema- 
ture hardening  of  color  or  varnish  on  the  surface,  while  the  body  of  the  under-color  still  remains 
soft.  A very  heavy  body  of  color  may  be  laid  on,  at  once,  upon  a well-dried  under-preparation, 
with  little  risk,  provided  that,  in  its  turn,  becomes  thoroughly  hard,  before  another  is  applied  over 
it.  But  if,  while  the  first  has  only  partially  and  superficially  hardened,  another  coating  be  laid 
over  it,  combined  with  a more  rapidly-drying  oil,  or  vehicle,  than  that  which  is  beneath,  the  outer 
layer  will  almost  inevitably  yield,  in  cracks,  to  the  retarded  desiccation  of  the  lower.  Years  may 
even  elapse  before  the  development  of  the  full  extent  of  the  mischief  arising  from  such  causes ; for, 
it  is  long  before  the  drying  and  hardening  of  an  oil-painting  is  thoroughly  complete.  Hence  arises 
the  great  importance  of  employing  an  equally  firm  and  reliable  oil,  or  medium  for  color,  throughout 
a work  $ and  that  all  dissimilar  mixtures  should  be  avoided.  Observation  of  the  best-preserved 
pictures,  as  well  as  corroborative  documentary  evidence  of  the  methods  employed  in  their  produc- 
tion, place  this  truth  beyond  question. 


228 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


For  similar  reasons,  no  other  than  a well-seasoned  canvas  should  ever  be  trusted.  We  have 
seen  a picture,  begun  upon  a canvas,  freshly  prepared  with  a strong  body  of  white  lead  and  raw 
oil,  irrecoverably  cracked  and  ruined,  in  less  than  a week,  after  a layer  of  color  combined  with 
boiled  oil  and  varnish  had  been  applied.  Upon  a well-dried  preparation  no  such  effect  would  have 
resulted.  If,  instead  of  this  preparation,  composed  of  a body  of  white  lead,  ground  in  oil  of  a weak 
and  flimsy  character,  such  had  been  employed  in  tints  for  a picture,  over  which,  in  like  manner, 
others  had  been  laid  with  an  oil  or  medium  of  a different  and  more  drying  nature,  a similar  result 
would  have  been  the  consequence, 

35.  On  returning  to  work  upon  a picture,  after  it  is  once  dry,  it  may  be  found  that  fresh  color, 
especially  if  thinly  laid  on,  does  not  readily  adhere,  but  is  apt  to  creep — like  an  oily  substance 
applied  to  a damp  surface,  or  like  water  on  that  which  is  greasy  or  highly  polished.  There  are 
many  ways  of  correcting  this  difficulty— such  as  rubbing  it  over  with  scraped  potato,  Indian  meal 
and  water,  weak  spirits,  etc. ; but,  after  all,  there  is  nothing  better  than  water  applied  with  a soft 
cloth,  or  sponge,  and  carefully  wiped  off  again.  When  the  whole  picture  is  not  sufficiently  dry  to 
admit  of  this,  merely  breathing  on  the  part  upon  which  we  desire  to  work  answers  as  good  pur- 
pose. This  is  also  a safe  and  ready  method  of  ascertaining  if  a picture  be  dry  enough  to  work 
upon,  without  subjecting  it  to  the  touch  ; as  the  moisture  of  the  breath,  adhering  to  such  parts 
alone  as  are  dry,  and  being  rejected  by  the  undried  oily  surface,  shows  the  state  of  the  work,  in 
this  respect,  with  the  utmost  certainty. 

36.  After  a picture  has  been  laid  aside  for  some  time,  on  returning  to  work  upon  it,  it  may  be 
extremely  difficult  to  match  the  tints,  if  required  to  do  so,  and  even  if  they  appear  to  correspond  at 
the  moment,  when  those  more  recently  applied  in  their  turn  become  dry,  they  will  be  found  to  be 
out  of  harmony,  unless  proper  allowance  be  made  for  their  falling,  or  becoming  darker,  in  drying — 
a matter  extremely  difficult  to  regulate,  even  by  the  most  experienced. 

Want  of  clearness  almost  invariably  results  from  attempting  to  repeat  a color,  by  laying  it  over 
its  like  5 and  a necessity  for  so  doing  should  be  guarded  against,  by  proper  forethought. 

As  a general  rule,  it  is  better  that  all  after-tints  should  be  warmer  than  those  underneath,  as 
greater  brilliancy  and  clearness  are  thus  more  readily  attainable ; still,  there  are  exceptions,  of 
which  the  artist  may  often  advantageously  avail  himself,  and  with  the  operation  and  effect  of  which 
he  will  become  familiar  by  practice.  Thus,  for  example,  where  the  ground  or  preparation  is  white 
or  gray,  blues,  especially  in  skies,  and  draperies,  require  something  to  bear  up  their  extreme  cold- 
ness, which  may  be  better  effected  by  a warmer  under-tint  than  by  mingling  such  tints  with  them. 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


229 


either  on  the  palette  or  by  means  of  the  brush ; by  which,  unless  managed  with  the  utmost  skill, 
their  clearness  may  he  seriously  injured,  and  an  offensively  dull  greenish  or  purplish  hue  be  the 
result.  By  the  other  process,  all  the  desired  warmth  may  be  given  by  the  effect  of  the  warmer 
under-preparation,  without  such  injurious  consequences — a requisite  often  of  great  importance, 
particularly  in  skies  and  the  distant  portions  of  landscape.  As  the  learner,  however,  can  scarcely 
be  expected  to  be  prepared  at  once  for  the  discussion  and  comprehension  of  such  matters  of  ex- 
treme nicety  of  process,  it  may  be  sufficient  at  this  time  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  subject,  as 
one  hereafter  requiring  investigation  and  study. 

37.  For  other  reasons  than  those  alluded  to  (34),  while  undergoing  the  process  of  drying,  a 
picture  should  have  as  much  light  and  air  as  practicable,  even  to  placing  it  in  the  clear  sunshine. 
There  need  be  no  fear  of  such  exposure ; for,  the  work  that  will  not  stand  such  trial,  will  scarcely 
bear  that  of  time.  If  there  is  to  be  any  giving  way,  the  sooner  it  is  developed  the  better,  and  before 
it  leaves  the  artist’s  hands.  Even  after  it  is  completed,  a painting  in  oil  should  not  he  excluded 
from  the  advantage  of  light,  as  it  remains  for  a long  time  after  subject  to  injury  by  such  exclusion. 
The  colors  may  recover  their  original  purity  by  restoration  to  light  and  air,  yet  such  treatment 
can  certainly  do  them  no  good.  Prevention  is  always  better  than  cure.  It  is,  therefore,  a bad 
habit  to  turn  pictures  to  the  wall  during  the  progress  of  their  execution,  as  the  effect  upon  the 
colors,  however  partial,  may  be  sufficient  to  mislead,  on  returning  to  work  upon  them,  and  such 
parts  as  were  first  painted  upon,  afterward  recovering  their  original  character,  may  throw  the 
whole  out  of  keeping.  As  the  process  toward  the  permanent  drying  or  hardening  of  a picture  is 
slow,  and  often  continued  even  for  years  after  its  completion  — and,  as  it  is  never  secure  from  the 
evil  influence  of  exclusion  from  light  and  air  until  this  takes  place  — it  is  proper  that  it  should  be 
equally  fairly  dealt  by  after  it  leaves  the  artist’s  hands.  “ If  I knew  that  my  picture  was  still  at 
Antwerp,”  says  Rubens,  in  a letter  still  extant,  “ I would  cause  it  to  be  detained,  and  the  case 
opened,  in  order  to  see  if  it  is  not  spoiled,  after  having  been  so  long  shut  up  without  air ; and 
whether,  as  commonly  happens  to  fresh  colors  (under  such  circumstances),  it  has  not  turned  yel- 
low, so  as  no  longer  to  present  in  appearance  what  it  was  at  first.  The  remedy,  however,  if  it 
should  happen  to  be  in  so  bad  a state,  will  be  to  place  it  several  times  in  the  sun,  as  the  sun  can 
dissipate  the  superfluity  of  the  oil,  which  causes  this  alteration;  and  if,  at  any  time,  it  should 
again  become  brown,  it  should  be  again  exposed  to  the  sun’s  rays,  which  are  the  only  antidote 
for  this  disease  of  the  heart.”  And  again,  in  writing  to  Subtermans,  in  relation  to  his  large  pic- 
ture, still  in  the  Pitti  palace  at  Florence:  u I fear  that  a picture  so  large,  rolled  and  boxed  up, 
may  very  possibly  cause  discoloration  in  the  tints,  and  particularly  in  the  lights  and  flesh-tints ; 


230 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


then  must  I request  you  to  have  it  exposed  in  the  sun,  at  intervals,  at  such  times  as  may  he 
necessary  for  its  recovery,”  etc. 

38.  Or  Varnishing. — Some  precaution  is  necessary  in  varnishing  a picture.  It  is  a com- 
monly-received opinion  that  varnish  should  not  be  applied  to  a picture  for  some  time  after  its 
completion,  and  even  that  it  should  be  left  for  years  before  its  application.  Much  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  oils,  or  vehicles,  which  may  have  been  employed.  If  strong  dryers  have  been 
used — if  the  process  of  siccation  has  been  properly  looked  to  in  its  execution,  and  if  portions  of  var- 
nish have  been  used  throughout  the  work — there  can  be  little  risk,  and  certainly  many  advantages, 
from  its  application,  very  shortly  after  the  completion  of  the  picture.  The  evil  effects  of  early 
varnishing  may  be  often  seen  in  a picture  in  which  different  oils  have  been  used,  and  in  which  all 
the  parts  were  not  in  an  equal  degree  of  firmness  at  the  time  of  its  application.  When  a picture 
has  been  painted  with  slowly-drying  oils,  and  varnish  applied  over  it  before  it  is  thoroughly  hard, 
which  will  take  some  time  to  effect,  great  risk  must  certainly  be  incurred  by  early  varnishing — 
particularly  if  rapidly -drying  or  hard  varnishes  are  employed — for  reasons  which  have  been  already 
explained  (34).  If,  on  the  contrary,  strong  driers,  mingled  with  portions  of  the  same  varnish  which 
may  be  ultimately  applied  to  the  picture,  have  been  used  throughout,  little  risk  can  be  incurred. 
Pictures  executed  in  this  manner  will  be  found  to  require  very  slight  varnishing. 

The  relative  virtues  of  the  different  kinds  of  varnishes  have  been  often  a subject  of  discussion 
among  artists,  each  claiming  pre-eminence  for  his  favorite,  yet  leaving  the  question  as  undecided 
as  that  of  the  endless  catalogue  of  vehicles,  oils,  gumptions,  etc.,  which,  with  their  day  of  caprice, 
or  fashion,  have  passed  away,  and  left  the  long-tried  and  simple  Mastic-varnish  in  as  favorable  gen- 
eral acceptation  now  as  ever.  Whatever  injurious  consequences  may  result  from  its  employment, 
they  may  be  traced  to  other  causes  than  inadequacy  in  itself  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a reliable 
varnish. 

Previous  to  varnishing,  the  picture  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  not  only  from  dust,  but  of 
any  greasiness  that  may  often  result  from  the  use  of  impure  oils,  and  other  causes.  This  peculiar 
greasiness  prevents  a proper  adhesion  of  the  varnish,  and  may  cause  it  to  creep,  and  sometimes 
even  to  granulate  in  hardening,  in  a very  injurious  manner.  An  application  of  water,  or  a little 
weak  spirits  and  water,  generally  obviates  this  difficulty.  But,  where  there  is  suspicion,  every 
precaution  should  be  used.  The  scrapings  of  a potato  rubbed  over  the  picture,  and  afterward 
washed  off  with  tepid  water,  may  be  strongly  recommended  j or  a paste  of  Indian  corn  or  bean 
meal  and  water,  rubbed  carefully  over  it  with  the  hand,  or  with  a soft  cloth — -observing  to  remove 
this  in  the  same  manner  by  washing,  and  in  both  cases  to  wipe  the  picture  thoroughly  dry,  with 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


231 


an  old  silk-handkerchief,  or  such  like.  It  should  then,  to  avoid  all  risk  of  moisture  remaining,  be 
placed  in  the  sun,  or  at  a moderate  distance  before  a fire,  for  a few  minutes  5 and,  while  still 
slightly  warm,  the  varnish  should  be  applied.  If  the  varnish  is  itself  warmed  in  like  manner,  it 
will  flow  the  better. 

In  applying  the  varnish,  the  picture  should  he  laid  down,  face  upward,  and  every  precaution 
used  against  dust  or  motes  falling  upon  it.  A broad  and  not  too  coarse-haired  brush,  should  be 
employed.  The  varnish  should  be  laid  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  — observing  to  finish  as  you  go, 
and  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  retouching  any  part,  after  it  has  been  once  covered.  Instead  of 
transferring  the  varnish  by  the  brush,  from  a cup  to  the  picture,  it  is  better  to  pour  a small  quan- 
tity directly  from  the  bottle  on  a portion  of  the  picture,  and  distribute  it  evenly  thereon  with  the 
brush  — again  repeating  the  supply  to  another  adjoining  portion,  in  such  quantities  as  may  be  per- 
fectly and  evenly  distributed  at  once;  carefully  observing  to  unite  it  with  that  already  applied, 
while  it  is  yet  fluid,  so  as  to  present  an  equal  and  perfect  distribution  throughout. 

Varnish  should  neither  be  too  thick,  nor  laid  on  in  a quantity  beyond  that  which  may  be 
required  to  bear  out  the  colors  of  the  picture,  and  give  it  an  even  surface. 

39.  There  is  no  question  of  the  fact  that  pictures,  painted  in  oil,  become  more  or  less  reduced 
in  tone,  or  darkened,  by  time;  and  that  much  of  the  harmonious  richness  of  tone  of  the  productions 
of  the  great  masters  of  color  may  be  attributed  to  this  action,  or,  more  likely,  that  the  simplicity 
and  soundness  of  their  methods  divested  them  of  all  experimental  quackery.  Relying,  as  they  did, 
upon  plain  and  well-tested  truths,  time  has  sustained  rather  than  impaired  their  excellences.  Un- 
less the  stock,  the  substance,  the  reliable  material,  be  there,  however,  time  is  more  likely  to  prove  a 
destroyer — as  the  countless  cracked  and  faded,  blackened  and  blotched  productions  of  unskilful 
experimentalists,  bear  evidence.  Time  never  yet  gave  strength  to  feebleness,  nor  made  harmony 
of  discord.  Sometimes  it  may  have  improved  an  indifferent  work,  but  it  has  been  rather  by  obscu- 
ring defects  than  by  developing  beauties.  One  thing  is  very  certain — if  it  has  ever  improved  the 
color  of  a picture,  it  never  yet  corrected  bad  drawing.* 

40.  The  unskilled  are  apt  to  imagine  that  brilliancy  of  color  is  to  be  attained  by  the  use  of 
bright  and  glaring  pigments,  and  bestow,  with  an  unsparing  hand,  their  white  and  yellows,  reds 
and  blues — as  painful  to  the  eye  as  sounding  words  in  discourse  to  the  ear,  and  equally  valueless 
and  offensive.  The  language  of  Art  should  be  gentle,  eloquent,  and  intelligible,  as  that  of  Nature. 
In  Nature,  all  is  harmony.  The  hues  of  morning,  and  the  golden  tints  of  evening;  the  glowing 


* “ Se  il  Tempo  dipinge,  non  ha  mai  disignato.” — Italian  Proverb. 


232 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


sunshine  falling  in  broad  masses,  or  broken  by  passing  clouds,  upon  the  fields  of  summer,  or  the 
ice-bound  streams  and  snows  of  winter  5 the  pale  moon,  or  glaring  firelight,  still  and  for  ever  are 
diffused  harmoniously  throughout  the  landscape.  The  imitative  power  of  art  is  limited.  To  learn 
to  mark  and  know  its  limits  is  the  business  of  the  artist.  It  is  in  vain  to  hope  to  reach  a point  in 
our  scale  of  light  and  brilliancy  beyond  the  power  of  the  palette  to  produce.  How  far  it  falls  short 
of  an  approach  to  that  of  sunshine,  the  glare  of  fire,  or  even  the  more  subdued  moonlight,  it  is 
useless  to  argue.  Yet  from  such  an  available  point  must  be  marked  the  scale  of  our  imitative 
resources  $ and,  as  we  can  go  no  higher,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  meet  the  difficulty  by  reducing 
this  scale  in  just  subordination  thereto.  Our  observation  and  study  of  detail  in  Nature,  therefore, 
in  reference  to  color  as  well  as  in  regard  to  form,  should  be  directed  always  with  deference  to  her 
broad  and  general  aspects,  ever  limiting  our  ambition  to  the  possibilities  of  art.  The  book  of 
Nature  should  be  kept  wide  open,  and  constantly  before  us — the  suggestive  impulse  to  our  art, 
and  truest  guide  to  excellence  in  all  its  ways.  No  abstract  page,  or  sentence,  torn  out  by  chance, 
or  idly  selected  here  or  there,  should  ever  satisfy  us. 

41.  With  regard  to  the  best  objects  of  study  for  a beginner  in  the  use  of  oil-colors,  the  copy- 
ing of  some  simple  subject  — as  a Head , in  profile  — a Figure , well  defined,  on  a plain  background 
— a Landscape , in  which  the  effect  is  easy  of  imitation — a bit  of  Still  life , and  such  like  — may 
be  recommended.  If  he  can  have  access  to  studies  by  practical  artists  of  such  subjects,  executed, 
as  such  generally  are,  in  a direct,  unaffected,  and  obvious  manner,  they  will  be  found  best  adapted 
to  his  requirements.  From  these  he  may  gradually  indulge  his  ambition  by  attempting  more  com- 
plete and  finished  works,  and,  very  soon,  try  his  strength  on  similar  subjects  from  nature  5 always 
endeavoring  to  imitate  the  subject  before  him  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  and  to  seek  a way  of  his 
own  in  so  doing,  rather  than  to  follow  the  prescribed  and  often  conventional  methods  of  others. 

He  need  never  be  at  a loss  for  subjects.  A cast  of  drapery — a pile  of  books,  or  other  articles, 
upon  his  table  — groups  of  fruit  or  flowers — the  very  weeds  and  plants  which  he  may  gather  from 
the  roadside,  or  paint  upon  the  spot  where  they  are  growing — will  prove  models  worthy  of  his 
utmost  effort. 

With  the  increase  of  capacity  will  come  the  increase  of  desire  for  closer  intimacy  with  Nature, 
and  love  for  her  will  only  be  shared  by  that  for  the  art  by  which  he  is  brought  into  privileged  nsso- 
ciation  with  her. 

Although  the  copying  of  pictures  may  be  recommended,  as  a beginning,  by  which  a certain 
requisite  amount  of  facility  in  the  use  of  the  pigments  may  be  gained,  the  learner  can  not  be 
directed  to  Nature  too  soonj  nor  should  he  be  restrained  from  his  privilege  of  acquiring  a way  of 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


233 


his  own  in  discovering  her  excellences  and  expressing  his  conclusions.  Thus,  at  the  same  time, 
he  learns  the  value  of  the  art  of  others,  and  becomes  better  qualified  to  profit  by  its  suggestions. 

As  the  inclinations  of  a great  portion  of  those,  for  whose  benefit  this  work  is  designed,  may 
tend  to  Landscape-painting , some  few  hints  on  the  subject  may  be  acceptable.  To  amateurs  it 
offers  inducements  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  opportunities  they  possess  for  its  indulgence ; and,  in 
a land  like  ours,  abounding  with  so  much  of  the  beautiful  in  nature,  the  existence  of  so  general  an 
impulse  thereto  is  no  matter  of  surprise. 

42.  The  first  attempts  of  almost  all  beginners  in  landscape-painting  are  marked  by  an  exag- 
geration of  local  colors.  The  individuality  of  tints,  which  they  imagine  that  they  discover  in 
nature,  they  express  too  decidedly,  and  without  that  regard  to  the  effect  of  aerial  perspective  which 
should  be  as  accurately  and  carefully  preserved  as  its  linear  proportions.  To  avoid  this  error,  we 
would  recommend  that  a landscape  should  be  made  out,  as  far  as  possible,  with  subdued  tints,  and 
that  all  the  more  violent  pigments  should  be  reserved  for  finishing.  The  effects  of  light  and  atmo- 
sphere are  prerequisites  in  Landscape,  and  should  be  preserved  with  the  utmost  care.  It  is  always 
easier  to  add  force  of  local  color  to  any  part,  where  it  may  seem  to  be  required,  by  thus  preserving 
a harmonious  keeping  throughout,  than  to  restore  such  harmony  from  discord.  To  this  end,  the 
beginner  should  not  trust  himself  with  any  of  the  strong  pigments,  such  as  chrome  and  cadmium 
yellows,  the  bright  greens,  and  such  like.  In  Landscape,  they  are  even  more  dangerous  and 
unmanageable,  by  unskilful  hands,  than  Vermilion  and  Prussian  Blue  in  painting  flesh. — With 
White , Yellow  Ochre , Raw  and  Burnt  Siena , Naples  Red , and  Ultramarine , there  is  scarcely 
an  effect  that  can  not  be  made  out.  To  these  may  be  added,  if  found  necessary,  in  heightening 
and  finishing,  Naples  Yellow  (or,  instead  of  it,  a tint  formed  of  White  and  Cadmium,  commonly 
sold  as  an  original  pigment,  under  the  name  of  Brilliant  or  Bright  Yellow ),  Terra-verde , Mala- 
chite Green , and  some  few  others,  such  as  Asphaltum , Madder-lake , Ivory  Black , etc.,  which 
last-mentioned  are  generally  employed  as  glazers. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  anticipate  the  requirements  of  a palette  for  landscape  than  for  painting  a 
head  or  figure.  Much  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  artist.  All  that  is  advised,  therefore, 
must  be  taken  in  a general  sense,  and  applied  with  discretion. 

43.  In  preparing  the  palette,  having  decided  upon  the  nature  and  force  of  the  highest  and 
brightest  sky-tint,  give  that  precedence,  in  the  place  of  White,  at  the  head  of  the  palette.  Next 
proceed  to  prepare  a lower  range  of  sky-tints  from  it,  by  such  additions  thereto  of  Ultramarine, 
Yellow,  and  Red,  in  more  or  less  neutral  or  decided  hues,  as  the  subject  may  require.  (Blue- 

30 


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PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


Black  with  White,  etc.,  may  be  found  a very  useful  color  in  the  darker  tints  of  clouds.)  From  the 
sky-tints,  proceed  to  those  of  the  distance,  gradually  increasing  the  local  colors  until  you  reach 
those  of  the  foreground.  Thus  the  sky -tints  pass  by  gentle  gradations  through  the  whole  range  of 
the  palette  until  they  are  lost  in  the  more  decided  colors  required  in  foreground  objects. 

The  order  which  we  have  advised,  in  relation  to  preparing  the  palette,  may  be  equally  recom- 
mended to  be  observed  in  laying  in  the  masses  of  the  picture.  Thus,  by  the  time  we  have  the 
picture  well  laid  in,  we  are  able  to  judge,  with  some  degree  of  certainty,  of  the  amount  of  force 
of  local  tint  which  may  be  appropriately  introduced  3 and,  by  bringing  up  parts  of  the  foreground, 
or  wherever  it  may  be  desirable  to  concentrate  such  force,  for  the  sake  of  effect,  we  have  a reliable 
scale  to  which  our  palette  corresponds.  Much  may  doubtless  remain  to  be  done  beyond  the  mere 
laying  in  of  the  picture  3 and,  after  all,  the  learner  may  do  better  by  studying  out  the  way  of  doing 
it  himself.  What  has  been  said  must  be  considered  more  by  way  of  suggestion,  than  given  as  a 
rule.  Study  and  observation  of  the  successful  works  of  others,  as  well  as  of  Nature,  and  practical 
trial,  will  be  found  in  this,  as  in  all  other  departments  of  art,  the  surest  reliance. 

44.  A tint  formed  of  Yellow  Ochre  and  Ultramarine  may  make  a very  dull  and  unsatisfactory 
Green  upon  the  palette,  especially  if  placed  by  the  side  of  one  in  which  Chrome  or  Cadmium  has 
been  substituted  for  Ochre  3 but,  in  a landscape  through  which  there  is  a diffusion  of  light,  shadow, 
and  reflection,  as  well  as  atmospheric  influences,  which,  in  a greater  or  less  degree,  break  the 
intensity  of  local  colors,  it  will  be  found  to  tell  far  more  harmoniously  than  the  more  violent  tint. 
It  will  certainly  be  found  to  be  more  manageable,  and  it  leaves  the  artist  with  the  advantage  of  a 
reserve. 

45.  For  foliage  in  shadows,  combinations  of  Ultramarine  with  both  Raw  and  Burnt  Siena  in 
near  objects,  and  by  adding  portions  of  the  sky-tints  to  those  that  are  more  distant,  will  be  found 
serviceable. 

Terra-verde  may  be  also  employed  to  advantage  in  various  combinations. 

3IalacMte  Green  is  of  an  exquisitely  tender  hue.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  this  valuable 
pigment  should  be  almost  out  of  use,  by  reason  of  its  rarity  and  consequent  dearness.  A little  of 
it  mixed  with  the  yellows,  for  high  lights,  breaks  the  brassy  and  disagreeable  effect  which  they 
often  produce ; and,  with  all  the  other  pigments  employed  in  Landscape,  it  may  be  united  often 
with  the  happiest  effect. 

In  trees  and  foliage,  as  a general  rule,  it  is  better  to  get  in  the  masses  first,  leaving  the  darker 
and  lighter  touches,  by  which  they  are  to  be  further  developed  and  elaborated,  to  be  broken  over 


them.  If  the  masses  are  laid  in  with  proper  care,  and  regard  to  the  after-process  for  which  they 
are  to  form  a basis,  it  may  surprise  the  learner  to  find  with  how  little  labor  a high  degree  of  finish 
may  be  produced  by  a few  sharp,  decided,  and  properly-applied  touches.  Instead  of  attempting  to 
stipple  up  the  whole  with  a small  pencil,  a full  brush  should  be  employed.  In  the  course  of  a sit- 
ting, the  color  will  become  slightly  tacky  (31) — the  more  so  if  a strong  drier  has  been  employed 
as  a medium,  and  the  finishing  touches  can  be  thus  applied,  while  the  under-tint  is  still  soft,  with 
the  utmost  clearness.  If  farther  elaboration,  or  an  increase  or  diminishing  of  the  force  of  the 
masses,  be  found  necessary,  an  after-process  may  be  resorted  to,  by  going  over  the  whole  with  a 
glaze,  or  scumble,  which  may  be  again  enlivened,  while  still  soft,  in  like  manner.  It  may  he  well 
to  observe,  as  a general  rule,  that  it  is  always  better,  in  the  “ getting  in”  of  a picture,  to  secure  all 
the  detail  we  can  as  we  advance.  In  finishing,  as  at  its  commencement,  we  should  be  free  to  give 
our  whole  attention  to  its  general  effect.  In  the  intermediate  stages  of  its  progress,  all  details  and 
minutiae  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  attended  to. 

The  opinion  which  we  have  advanced  with  regard  to  the  efficiency  of  a very  simple  palette  for 
Landscape  may  be,  by  some,  called  in  question.  The  result  of  our  own  limited  experience  in  that 
department,  and  observation  of  the  works  of  the  best  landscape-painters,  not  only  of  our  own  time, 
but  of  the  past,  have  matured  the  conclusion. 

A picture,  and  particularly  a landscape,  once  carefully  and  substantially  laid  in  with  sufficient 
effect  of  airiness  and  light  to  sustain  such  an  after-process  without  breaking  up  its  detail  of  form, 
or  injuriously  affecting  its  general  characteristics,  the  artist  may  have  recourse  to  glazing,  scumbling, 
and  the  various  bolder  expedients  at  his  disposal,  with  the  utmost  confidence.  It  should  therefore 
be  an  object  of  his  highest  ambition  to  hold  this  command  over  his  work,  and  learn  to  make  due 
allowance  therefor  in  all  its  preparatory  stages. 

Less  exacting  in  the  requirement  of  severe  preparatory  study  than  most  other  branches  of 
painting — less  arbitrary  in  the  requisition  of  extreme  accuracy — affording  more  license  in  its 
practice,  because  more  varied  and  less  conventional  in  its  aspects  and  combinations — and,  besides, 
being  more  generally  appreciated  in  results  of  trial,  however  they  may  reach  but  a very  moderate 
degree  of  excellence, — landscape-painting  offers  to  those,  who  can  not  or  who  may  not  desire  to 
make  art  the  business  of  their  lives,  many  inducements.  The  difficulties  of  its  practice  in  oil-colors 
are  much  less  than  they  are  commonly  imagined  to  he.  Oil-colors,  beyond  all  question,  with  a 
little  practical  experience  in  their  use,  are  far  more  manageable,  and  better  adapted  to  faithful 
representation  of  Nature,  than  any  others.  They  are  more  capable  of  approaching  at  once  the 
truth  of  local  tints,  as  well  as  the  various  effects  of  light  and  shadow,  air  and  reflection,  by  which 
such  tints  may  be  affected  in  Nature.  Hence  the  student  of  landscape-painting  may  be  safety 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


236 

advised  to  their  trial,  not  only  in  his  first  attempts  at  home,  but  in  his  out-door  studies  from 
Nature. 

46.  We  are  not  prepared  to  express  an  opinion  how  commonly  the  habit  of  painting  in  oil 
directly  from  nature  prevailed  among  landscape-painters  up  to  nearly  our  own  period.  If  such, 
however,  had  been  a common  practice  with  them,  it  would  be  scarcely  probable  that  a greater 
number  of  such  sketches  and  studies  would  not  have  been  still  in  existence.  There  are  in  every 
sketch,  drawing,  or  study,  thus  produced,  evidences  of  the  presence  of  Nature  which  can  scarcely 
be  mistaken  j and  their  sketches,  especially  in  color,  as  well  as  their  finished  works,  certainly  induce 
a different  conclusion.  The  almost  universal  practice  of  out-door  study  of  Nature,  by  painting  in 
the  open  air,  which  now  so  generally  prevails  among  European  artists,  renders  it  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  enter  upon  a discussion  of  its  advantages  to  the  student.  That  it  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  attainment  of  excellence  in  landscape-painting,  we  would  by  no  means  wish  to  be  under- 
stood as  insisting.  We  know,  indeed,  that  some  of  the  best  landscape-painters  of  our  time  have 
rarely,  if  ever,  practised  this  method  of  study.  This  is  well  known  to  have  been  the  case  with 
the  late  American  artist  Cole  5 and  many  others  could  be  mentioned,  who,  by  strength  of  mem- 
ory, or  other  natural  or  acquired  qualifications,  have  successfully  secured  by  other  means  the 
advantages  of  such  study. 


47.  The  inconveniences  of  painting  in  oil  in  the  open  air 
are  much  less  than  they  are  generally  imagined  to  be,  and 
very  little  trial  will  soon  render  its  practice  as  easy  as  it  is 
delightful  and  profitable.  Sketch-boxes,  made  of  wood  or  of 
tin,  fitted  with  all  essential  conveniences,  are  sold  at  the  shops, 
or  may  be  contrived  by  the  artist  himself  5 and,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a camp-stool  and  umbrella,  all  of  which  may  be  carried 
in  the  hand  or  by  a strap  over  the  shoulder,  the  artist  may 
take  with  him  every  requisite  for  out-door  study  and  painting 
in  oil-colors,  in  most  compact  and  portable  shape. 


48.  The  exercise  of  much  judgment  will  be  often  called 
in  requisition  in  painting  in  the  open  air,  from  the  variations 
of  light  on  objects,  and  other  causes.  In  the  studio,  the  light  on  an  object  may  be  retained  with 
little  variation  throughout  the  day;  while  in  the  open  air,  and  particularly  in  sunlight,  it  is  con- 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


•237 


stantly  changing,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a few  hours  the  general  effect  may  be  entirely  altered. 
This  may  prove  very  embarrassing  to  a beginner,  but  by  practice  he  will  soon  learn  to  make 
proper  allowance  for  such  variations,  and  be  able  to  secure  the  particular  effect  he  desires  to 
represent  by  careful  observation  at  the  precise  moment  of  its  presence,  and  by  judicious  man- 
agement in  both  previous  and  after  operations.  As  such  and  many  other  difficulties  that  may 
be  encountered  can  only  be  met  and  obviated  by  expedients  which  practice  alone  can  profitably 
teach,  it  may  be  recommended  that  more  than  one  sketch  or  study  should  be  carried  on  at  the 
same  time,  or  rather  in  the  same  excursion.  Thus,  in  the  morning  we  may  progress  with  one 
study,  and  in  the  afternoon  with  another.  To  this  end,  sketch-boxes  are  so  contrived  as  to  carry 
several  sketches  at  once,  in  an  undried  state,  without  injury. 

49.  It  is  very  important  that  the  learner  should  be  early  accustomed  to  work  by  various  lights, 
and  to  the  imitation  of  every  possible  variety  of  effect  by  which  Nature  may  be  influenced. 
Whatever  inconveniences  in  the  management  of  his  materials  may  often  occur  in  so  doing,  they  are 
insignificant  compared  with  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  perseverance  in  the  more  important 
objects  of  study  and  trial.  This  practice  is  equally  advisable  in  the  studio.  Studies  of  objects,  no 
matter  what  they  are,  should  be  made  in  various  positions,  and  under  every  possible  variety  of 
light  and  shadow,  relief  and  effect.  The  learner  should  not  be  too  considerate  of  his  own  con- 
venience, but  regard  it  as  secondary  to  the  higher  purposes  for  which  he  looks  to  Nature  for 
knowledge  and  assistance. 

We  know  not,  among  all  the  delightful  ways  to  which  the  impulses  of  art  direct,  one  affording 
so  much  real  enjoyment  as  to  be  privileged  to  make  the  out-door  world  of  Nature  our  studio — to 
be  released  from  the  noise  and  strife  of  life,  and  to  breathe  the  free  air  of  Nature,  in  converse  with 
her.  The  memory  of  the  moments  thus  passed  — in  the- seclusion  of  the  forest,  by  the  brook,  on 
the  mountain-height,  and  the  seaside  — by  the  cottage,  or  rude  log-hut,  of  our  own  land  — or 
among  the  picturesque  scenery  of  the  Old  W^orld  — will  abide  with  us  for  ever,  as  consolations 
worth  the  labor  of  a lifetime  to  possess.  These  to  the  artist  are  no  dreams,  but  realities,  upon 
which  he  can  place  his  hand  and  call  them  his  own. 

In  the  Old  World,  out-of-door  study  is  carried  to  a much  greater  extent  than  with  us.  The 
traveller  is  for  ever  reminded  that  the  artist  is  abroad  j and  scarcely  a picturesque  spot  he  visits, 
but  he  will  there  find  either  the  well-equipped  amateur,  beneath  his  camp-umbrella,  fortified  at  all 
points,  and  against  all  emergencies,  with  patent  contrivances  and  conveniences,  or  the  more  busi- 
ness-like artist,  with  his  well-worn  sketch-box  or  portfolio.  He  may  be,  not  unfrequently,  startled 
by  meeting,  on  his  way,  some  strangely-caparisoned  and  even  uncouth-looking  figure,  on  foot  or 


238 


PAINTING  IN  OIL-COLORS. 


mounted  on  that  much-abused  yet  patient  bearer  of  all  burdens,  outward  or  homeward  bound  on 
some  expedition  in  search  of  the  beautiful,  and  possibly  he  may  be  no  less  surprised  to  recognise 
therein  one  world-famed  in  art.  There  the  artist  claims,  and  the  world  accedes  to  him,  in  right 
of  his  vocation,  privileges  which  exempt  him  from  all  restraint  in  his  pursuits.  His  portfolio  and 
his  sketch-book  pass  and  secure  him  favorable  acceptation  everywhere ; and  no  degree  of  success 
or  distinction  elevates  him  to  a position  to  cause  humiliation,  implied  or  felt,  by  being  found  still 
and  for  ever  in  a student’s  course. 


49.  Painting  is  applied,  as  a general  term,  to  any  process  by  which  the  natural  colors  of  objects 
are  added  to  their  linear  representation.  Thus,  even  works  in  Pastel , or  colored  crayons,  and 
those  in  Mosaic — which  are  produced  by  an  arrangement  of  bits  of  colored  glass  or  stones  imbed- 
ded in  cement,  and  polished  to  an  even  surface — are  often  called  Paintings. 

We  have  given  precedence  to  the  subject  of  painting  in  oil-colors,  in  consideration  not  only  of 
its  intrinsic  value  as  the  most  effective  method  for  pictorial  production,  but  as  the  surest,  most 
direct,  and  at  the  same  time  easiest  means  by  which  the  imitation  of  Nature  may  be  successfully 
reached,  and  also  as  the  best  and  most  efficient  training  to  the  practice  of  all  other  methods. 

50.  It  is  too  commonly  imagined  that  a box  of  water-colors,  or  a few  colored  crayons,  are 
quite  sufficient  for  a mere  beginner  ; whereas,  such  should  be  allowed  every  possible  advantage 


PAINTING  IN  WATER-COLORS. 


239 


and  assistance  that  can  be  derived  from  ease  as  well  as  efficiency  of  method  or  materials.  One  of 
the  great  objects  of  education  in  art  should  be  to  advance  the  learner  as  soon  as  possible  beyond 
its  first  difficulties  $ to  endeavor  to  make  easy  as  well  as  plain  the  course  and  direct  the  approach 
to  the  comprehension  of  and  power  of  expressing  the  truths  of  Nature  5 to  develop  to  his  under- 
standing and  appreciation  its  higher  attributes,  resources,  and  privileges ; and  to  disembarrass  him 
of  all  avoidable  obstacles  in  the  attainment  of  these  important  requirements.  Other  difficulties, 
which  lie  in  the  way  of  an  approach  to  excellence,  are  quite  sufficient  in  themselves  to  try  the 
courage  and  exercise  the  patient  perseverance  of  the  learner,  without  his  being  unnecessarily 
involved  in  additional  perplexities  of  methods  and  materials  difficult  of  management,  indirect  in 
application,  and  inefficient  in  result. 

It  is  very  certain  that  an  effect  of  color,  as  well  as  individual  tints,  can  be  expressed  more 
directly  and  certainly  by  oil  colors  than  by  any  other  method,  and  hence  are  the  advantages  it 
offers  as  a means  of  study.  Undue  importance  is  too  frequently  attached  to  the  acquirement  of 
mechanical  dexterity  in  the  management  of  materials  over  those  which  involve  the  strength  of  all 
art,  and  by  which  we  are  brought  within  the  privileges  of  the  great  school  of  Nature,  and  made 
capable  of  comprehending  and  appropriating  her  wholesome  lessons.  That  method  or  means 
which  most  directly  leads  to  such  desirable  attainments  is  certainly  that  which  commends  itself 
most  strongly  to  the  learner. 


ertion  of  an  equal 
found  practicable  only 


is  certainly  capable  of  being  carried  to 
very  great  perfection  5 but, 
to  attain  thereby  an  ap- 
proach to  an  equal  degree 
of  excellence,  by  the  ex- 
amount  of  labor  and  trial,  as  effectively  as  by  oil-colors,  will  be 
by  few.  There  is  no  question,  in  most  if  not  in  all  individual  cases, 
presupposing  in  each  an  equal  amount  of  preparatory  training  and  capacity  in  design,  that  those 
who  make  a beginning  in  painting  with  oil-colors  will  much  earlier  succeed  in  producing  a com- 
paratively successful  picture  than  those  who  employ  any  other  method ; and,  moreover,  that  such 
are  better  prepared,  after  mastering  the  first  difficulties  of  painting  in  oil,  to  acquire  a ready  com- 
mand of  other  methods.  It  is  not  from  theoretical  conclusions,  but  from  observation  and  practical 
experiment,  that  we  express  without  hesitation  the  opinion  that  the  best  training  for  any  method 
or  style  of  painting  is  first  to  paint  in  oil-colors. 


240 


PAINTING  IN  WATEK-COLOES. 


Many  instances  have  come  within  our  observation  of  those  who  have  been  for  years  vainly 
attempting  to  realize  their  study  and  impressions  of  Nature  with  pastel,  water-colors,  and  other 
methods,  often  with  the  aid  of  the  best  masters  that  could  be  procured,  and  by  the  exertion  of  the 
utmost  and  most  patient  perseverance,  who  have  in  a few  trials  with  oil-colors  at  once  felt  and 
successfully  availed  themselves  of  its  superior  advantages.  Such  we  have  known  return  to  their 
first  methods  with  invigorated  capacity,  acquired  by  the  practice  of  painting  in  oil,  surprising  even 
to  themselves.  We  have  farther  witnessed  a degree  of  success  in  almost  the  very  first  attempts  of 
painting  in  oils  directly  from  Nature,  which  would  scarcely  have  been  attainable  in  years  of  long 
and  arduous  trial  by  other  methods. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  artist  in  oil-painting  may  derive  great  assistance  therein  by  making 
himself,  to  some  extent  at  least,  practically  familiar  with  other  processes,  not  only  in  consideration 
of  occasional  requirement  of  their  service,  but  also  by  the  advantages  which  he  may  hence  derive 
by  capacity  of  appropriation  of  their  peculiar  excellences  to  his  own. 

52.  As  ready  conveniences  for  sketching  and  securing  memoranda  of  effects  in  Nature,  both 
water-colors  and  tinted  crayons  are  of  much  value,  especially  to  the  landscape-painter.  A small 
box  of  colors  or  a few  crayons  may  be  carried  always  in  the  pocket,  together  with  a sketch-book 
of  stout  paper,  or  cards  of  Bristol-board ; and  however  such  means  may  not  be  as  efficient  as  oil- 
colors  to  approach  the  truth  of  a reality  in  Nature,  they  are  still  capable  of  producing  memoranda 
from  which  the  memory  may  derive  invaluable  assistance.  For  such  purpose,  very  few  colors 
will  be  found  sufficient.  From  the  three  primitive  colors,  blue,  red,  and  yellow,  combinations  may 
be  produced  of  endless  variety;  indeed,  could  we  possess  pigments  equal  to  the  wonderful  purity 
of  tint  with  which  they  are  developed  by  the  prism,  we  should  scarcely  require  other  for  water- 
colors,  and  only  for  oil  the  addition  of  white,  which  should  be  theoretically  regarded  as  the  rejec- 
tion, as  black  is  the  absorption,  of  all  colors.  However  this  may  appear  to  the  learner  inconsistent 
with  the  universal  requirement  by  artists  of  so  many  more  colors,  it  is  a truth  that  he  should  bear 
in  mind,  and  from  the  investigation  of  which  he  may  derive  much  profit — if  in  no  other  respect 
than  in  teaching  him  that  the  strength  of  the  palette  consists  less  in  the  number  and  variety  of  the 
pigments  than  in  their  skilful  combination  and  application. 

53.  The  pigments  for  painting  in  water-colors  are  generally  prepared  and  sold  either  in  hard 
cakes,  or  in  a moist  state,  put  up  in  small  cups  or  metallic  tubes.  The  cups  are  made  to  fit  the 
portable  box  of  japanned  tin ; and  the  colors  are  used  directly  from  them,  without  further  rubbing 
down.  For  those  in  cakes  or  tubes,  a palette,  plate,  or  slab  of  porcelain,  is  requisite. 


PAINTING  IN  WATE  11 - COLORS. 


241 


The  moist  colors,  since  their  recent  introduction,  have  almost  entirely  superseded  the  dry 
cakes,  over  which  they  possess  many  advantages,  but  are  in  some  respects  more  difficult  to  manage 
in  producing  even  and  flat  tints,  and  broad  washes. 

The  judicious  arrangement  in  the  box  of  a set  of  moist  colors  is  a matter  of  some  importance. 
As  the  box  is  made  to  serve  as  a palette,  and  the  brush  is  charged  with  the  colors  directly  from 
the  cups,  accidental  mingling  of  one  with  another  in  its  immediate  vicinity  will  be  almost  unavoid- 
able. They  should  therefore  be  arranged,  to  obviate  this  inconvenience,  in  a manner  to  avoid 
strong  contrasts,  and  with  all  possible  harmonious  agreement  one  with  another.  The  order  in 
which  they  are  given  in  the  following  list,  for  a box  of  eighteen  colors,  may  be  recommended : — 

54.  (i)  Gamboge  is  very  generally  employed:  Indian  Yellow  is  a more  intense  color,  but 
requires  great  caution  in  its  use ; its  permanency  in  water  is  less  suspected  than  in  oil.  (2)  Yel- 
low Ochre  is  as  valuable  in  water  as  in  oil  painting ; as  are  also  (3)  Raw  Siena  and  (4)  Mars 
Yellow.  (5)  Light-red  or  Burnt  Ochre  will  be  often  found  of  service ; managed  with  caution, 
it  is  a pigment  of  great  utility.  (6)  Vermilion  is  too  opaque  and  heavy  to  work  well  with  water, 
yet  it  may  be  frequently  employed  to  advantage,  (7)  Rose  Madder  and  (8)  Lake  are  of  great 
v due,  as  will  also  be  found  (9)  Burnt  Siena , (10)  Purple  Lake , (11)  Brovin  or  Burnt  Madder 
Lake , (12)  Vandyke  Brown , and  (13)  Sepia.  (14)  With  Ivory  Black  the  purest  grays  may  be 
formed,  and  its  extent  of  service  reaches  to  the  utmost  requisition  of  depth  and  intensity  of  color, 
which  may  be  varied  and  modified  by  combinations  with  the  other  pigments.  (15)  Indigo  is  of 
much  value,  particularly  in  combination  with  other  pigments.  (16)  Olive  Green  or  Terra-verdc 
are  both  serviceable  colors.  (17)  French  Blue  or  Ultramarine  has  generally  taken  the  place  of 
the  more  expensive  original  preparation  from  Lapis-Lazuli.  It  will  be  found  useful  for  many  pur- 
poses, but  for  skies,  distances,  and  clear  washes,  (18)  Cobalt  Blue  is  considered  preferable. 

There  are  many  other  pigments  employed  in  painting  in  water-colors  which  may  be  substituted 
for  some  of  those  we  have  named.  The  above  list  is  given  on  the  authority  of  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  painters  in  water-colors  now  living,  as  fully  adequate  to  every  requirement. 

Naples  Yellow , Cadmium , and  Lemon  Yellow , are  often  used  5 also  many  combinations  of 
pigments,  such  as  Payne's  Gray , Neutral  Tint , Hooker's  Green , Prout's  Brown , etc.,  etc. 
India  Ink , although  admirable  for  drawings  in  chiaro-’scuro — or  black-and-white  — will  be  seldom 
found  requisite  in  painting,  except  in  faintly  indicating  the  general  drawing  of  a picture,  when  it 
should  be  only  used  in  the  shadows.  For  this  purpose,  however,  a more  neutral  tint  is  better. 

White  is  not  found  in  the  above  list  of  colors  for  the  box,  as  it  is  generally  used  as  prepared  in 

a liquid  state,  under  the  name  of  Constant  or  Chinese  White , which  is  an  oxyde  of  zinc,  without 

SI 


242 


PAINTING  IN  WATER-COLORS. 


the  body  or  opacity  of  white  lead,  and  less  likely  to  be  injuriously  affected  by  impure  atmosphere, 
and  other  causes,  by  which  the  latter  when  used  in  water  becomes  darkened,  often  to  the  ruin  of  a 
picture  or  drawing. 

By  the  process  of  water-color  painting,  as  generally  practised,  the  ground  or  paper  is  the  source 
of  light  or  white,  and  its  perfection  in  a great  degree  depends  upon  a preservation  of  the  purity  of 
this  basis,  which,  once  lost,  may  be  often  difficult  to  recover  j white  as  a pigment  being  rarely  used, 
except  to  break  the  intensity  of  certain  other  pigments,  much  in  the  same  manner  as  scumbling  is 
applied  in  oil-painting  (33).  The  quality  of  the  paper,  therefore,  is  of  no  little  importance. 

55.  By  many  artists,  paper  of  rough  surface  is  preferred  j by  others,  that  which  is  smooth : all, 
however,  agree  that  it  should  be  of  an  even  texture,  well  sized,  and  of  a firm  fabric.  It  should  be 
stretched  upon  a board  or  frame.  It  may  not  be  always  easy  to  decide  upon  the  right  side  of  a 
sheet  of  paper,  without  careful  examination.  Should  the  maker’s  name  be  in  it,  by  holding  the 
sheet  to  the  light  it  will  appear.  If  it  reads  in  the  proper  direction,  the  side  next  the  eye  is  that, 
for  the  drawing  or  painting.  The  English  drawing-papers  are  universally  considered  to  be  superior 
to  all  others. 

58.  Fine  brown  or  sable  brushes,  not  too  small,  are  the  best  for  general  purposes.  They  should 


be  selected  of  a full,  even  shape,  gradually  tapering  to  a point.  Brushes  should  never  be  left  in 

water,  nor  suffered  to  become  dry  with  color  in  them. 
A habit  of  pointing  them  with  the  lips  should  be 
guarded  against.  This  can  be  done  much  better  on 
a spare  piece  of  paper,  or  a cloth.  Large  camel’s- 
hair  brushes,  either  flat  or  round,  are  required  for 
broad  washes. 

To  acquire  facility  in  the  handling  and  management  of  the  pencils  and  brushes,  practise  with 
one  tint,  such  as  Sepia  and  Indian  ink,  may  be  strongly  recommended. 

57.  As  far  as  general  principles,  both  of  purpose  and  method,  are  involved,  the  process  of  water- 
colors,  as  of  all  others,  differs  only  from  that  of  oil  in  the  requirement  of  a mode  of  treatment 
adapted  to  their  peculiar  qualities  and  effect  of  application. 


PAINTING  IN  WATER-COLORS. 


243 


In  water-colors,  the  white-paper  ground  supplies  the  place  of  a positive  white  pigment  in  oil. 
In  the  one  case,  the  color  is  of  a more  or  less  solid  character ; while  in  the  other  it  is  as  a stain, 
more  or  less  intense,  through  which  the  effect  of  the  light  of  the  paper,  or  ground,  is  still  evident 
— assimilating  in  this  respect  very  closely  to  the  process  of  glazing  in  oil-painting  (29).  To  pre- 
serve, therefore,  this  “ internal  light”  in  its  purity,  and  thus  to  retain  the  greatest  advantage  that 
painting  in  water-colors  possesses  over  oil,  is  important.  To  what  extent  this  advantage  may  be 
made  available  in  oil-painting,  the  learner,  as  he  is  advanced  in  capacity,  will  comprehend. 

58.  However  the  practice  of  painting  in  water-colors  may  admit  of  as  unrestrained  license  in 
the  hands  of  a master  as  any  other  method,  the  learner  should  not  be  impatient  of  the  wholesome 
restraint  of  sure  if  less  rapid  ways  to  success,  by  which  such  masterly  command  may  be  most 
certainly  attainable.  The  basis  of  painting  by  all  methods  is  a careful  predetermined  outline,  or 
general  indication  of  the  subject,  however  faintly  yet  sufficiently  expressed  to  secure  the  just  pro- 
portions and  accurate  position  of  all  important  objects,  masses  of  light  and  shadow,  etc.,  beyond  the 
hazard  of  necessity  for  after-corrections.  It  is  true  that,  in  the  process  of  all  works  of  art,  new 
suggestions  may  be  presented,  sometimes  even  by  accidents  of  execution;  yet  such  should  not  be 
relied  upon  too  confidently,  nor  are  they  to  be  made  profitably  available  without  a judgment  well 
matured,  and  a degree  of  practical  skill  only  to  be  acquired  by  study  and  experience. 

59.  In  drawing  the  outline  of  a water-color  design,  even  a greater  degree  of  neatness  and 
delicacy  is  requisite  than  in  oil.  In  the  latter  method,  the  solidity  of  the  pigments  may  obscure 
all  lines  after  they  have  served  their  purpose,  and  obliterate  all  errors  or  evidences  of  correction, 
which  in  the  former  would  not  only  cause  much  difficulty  and  trouble,  but  might  utterly  destroy 
the  beauty  of  the  work.  Indian-rubber  is  apt,  not  only  to  tear  up  the  surface  of  the  paper  in  spots 
where  it  has  been  used,  in  a manner  to  cause  irremediable  blotches  in  washes  passed  over  them, 
but  also  to  prevent  the  just  absorption  of  color.  As  far  as  possible,  recourse  to  it  should  therefore 
be  avoided,  by  making  out  the  outline  on  a separate  sheet  of  paper,  and  transferring  or  calquing  it 
in  its  place  very  faintly  by  means  of  transparent  paper,  etc.  (vii.-ix.)  This  may  be  more  conveni- 
ently done  in  works  of  the  studio  than  in  sketches  and  out-door  studies.  If  a pencil  is  at  all  em- 
ployed, it  should  not  be  too  hard  to  produce  a mark  difficult  of  obliteration,  nor  so  soft  as  to  make 
one  unnecessarily  heavy.  The  more  faint  and  yet  sufficiently  distinct  the  outline,  the  better. 

60.  In  getting  in  the  masses,  care  should  be  taken  to  advance  their  intensity  gradually,  and,  as 
far  as  practicable,  equally  throughout  the  picture ; thus  preserving  its  harmony  complete,  from 


244 


PAINTING  IN  TEMPERA. 


the  careful  outline  to  the  finished  work.  Many  artists  adopt  the  method  of  advancing  their  picture 
through  its  first  stages  entirely  by  means  of  clear  washes  of  a neutral  tint,  composed  of  Indian 
ink,  lake,  and  Prussian  or  Antwerp  blue.  So  commonly  does  this  practice  prevail,  that  an  admi- 
rable Neutral  tint  may  be  found  ready  prepared  in  cakes  or  in  a moist  state  (54).  Over  this 
preparation,  if  carefully  and  delicately  applied,  they  proceed  with  the  gradual  addition  of  color, 
and  often  with  the  most  effective  results. 

61.  For  broad  washes,  a large  and  full  brush  should  always  be  employed,  and  the  tint  or  wash 
should  be  prepared  in  a cup  or  saucer,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  insure  certainty  in  required  repeti- 
tions. The  drawing-board  should  be  placed  in  a sloping  position,  and  the  tint  should  be  applied 
by  beginning  at  the  top  and  gradually  extending  the  flow  downward ; by  which  means  the  most 
even  and  flat  masses,  or  the  most  delicate  gradations,  may  be  produced.  From  (he  masses,  pro- 
ceed to  the  gradual  introduction  of  detail,  and  thus  advance  to  the  more  decided  and  vigorous 
touches,  always  bearing  in  mind  how  much  more  easy  it  is  to  increase  the  intensity  or  power  of  a 
tint  in  water-colors  than  to  reduce  it.  Not  that  this  may  not  be  often  done  effectively  by  various 
means — such  as  moistening  the  paper  with  water,  and  absorption  by  a cloth  or  unsized  paper, 
or  even  Indian-rubber  or  stale  bread  may  be  resorted  to — yet  such  expedients  in  inexperienced 
hands  are  not  unfrequently  causes  of  mischief,  which  should  be  guarded  against.  As  we  have  so 
frequently  had  occasion  to  observe,  the  fullest  directions  in  relation  to  any  process  of  art  are  of 
little  use  to  the  learner  without  practical  trial  and  experience.  On  these  he  must  place  his  reliance, 
and  from  these  he  must  learn  the  availability  of  the  endless  expedients  and  resources  of  all  methods. 

62.  By  many  of  the  most  successful  artists  abroad,  especially  in  landscape,  water-colors  are 
employed,  not  only  as  ready  expedients  for  sketching,  but  also  in  the  production  of  most  highly- 
finished  works,  in  which  are  often  combined  the  extreme  clearness  and  delicacy  of  water-tints 
with  the  force,  solidity,  and  depth  of  color  and  tone,  of  oil-pictures.  Many  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  the  process  of  mere  washing  — as  the  application  of  water-colors  is  most  generally  under- 
stood with  us  to  imply — but  treat  the  pigments  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  those  ground  in 
oil  by  substituting  size  therefor,  which  should  be  more  properly  considered  painting  in  Tempera , 
or  Distemper. 

63.  Painting  in  Tempera  is  employed  in  large  works  for  theatrical  scenery,  internal  and  (in 
climates  not  affected  by  the  injurious  consequences  of  exposure  to  frost)  also  to  external  mural 
decorations,  as  well  as  in  smaller  pictures  on  panels,  paper,  and  canvass. 


PAINTING  IN  FRESCO. 


245 


Formerly  this  art  was  in  much  more  general  use  and  practice  than  at  present,  especially  in 
Italy,  where  many  fine  specimens  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen,  rivalling  in  durability  both  fresco  and 
oil  painting.  Many  of  the  pictures  by  the  early  masters  were  painted  in  tempera,  and  afterward 
covered  with  a resinous  or  oleaginous  varnish,  by  the  effect  of  which  it  frequently  requires  close 
observation  to  discover  the  difference  between  them  and  pictures  in  oil.  The  grounds  or  prepara- 
tions for  oil-pictures,  long  after  the  introduction  and  more  general  employment  of  that  process, 
were  commonly  in  tempera  5 and  often  the  dead-coloring  of  the  picture  was  done  by  this  process. 
The  Venetian  and  Flemish  masters  long  retained  this  custom,  and  much  of  the  brilliancy  of  their 
local  tints  and  coloring  may  be  attributed  thereto.  It  is  an  error,  however,  to  suppose  that  these 
tempera  grounds  or  preparations  were  of  an  absorbent  character — as  the  existence  of  a strong 
size,  or  resisting  varnish, can  be  clearly  detected  between  the  tempera-ground  and  the  after-process 
of  the  picture  in  oil.* 

64.  The  size  most  usually  employed  in  tempera  is  either  that  made  from  parchment  or  glove- 
leather,  or  isinglass,  the  quantity  to  be  combined  with  the  colors  varying  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  pigments  — sufficient  being  requisite  to  prevent  the  color  when  dry  from  being  rubbed  off  by 
the  application  of  the  fingers,  and  not  in  an  excess  by  which  a shining  or  glaring  effect  on  them 
should  be  produced.  Practice  can  only  teach  how  to  obviate  the  difficulty  arising  from  the  fact 
that  the  tints  appear  differently  when  dry  from  what  they  do  when  first  applied.  By  some  the 
pigments  are  ground  in  water,  and  kept  ready  for  use  in  a dry  state,  while  others  preserve  them 
in  water,  in  cups,  adding  the  size  when  employed.  For  small  works,  a palette  in  which  small  cups 
are  set,  or  one  of  japanned  tin,  with  a suitable  number  of  hollows  to  hold  the  pigments,  may  be 
employed.  The  brushes  used  are  similar  to  those  for  oil  and  water-color  painting. 

Tempera-painting,  when  applied  to  walls,  very  often  passes  with  the  uninformed  for  fresco. 

65.  Painting  in  Fresco  is  the  application  of  colors  ground  in  water  to  a freshly-plastered 
wall,  with  which  they  become  incorporated  to  a sufficient  depth  to  be  as  permanent  as  the  plaster 
itself. 

The  peculiarity  as  well  as  chief  difficulty,  or  rather  inconvenience,  of  the  process  of  fresco, 
consists  in  the  necessity  of  completing  the  picture  by  portions, while  the  plaster  is  still  in  a fresh 
and  moist  state;  so  that  as  much  only  of  the  plaster  can  be  applied  in  the  morning  as  the  artist' 
may  be  able  to  complete  thereon  a certain  portion  of  the  picture  in  the  course  of  the  day.  This 

* For  much  valuable  information  on  this,  as  indeed  on  many  other  “ Merimee  on  Painting  in  Oil,”  etc.,  Mrs.  Merrifield’s  translations, 
subjects  deeply  interesting  to  the  art-student,  he  may  refer  with  advan-  treatises,  etc.,  etc. 
tage  to  Sir  Charles  L.  Eastlake’s  “ Materials  for  a History  of  Painting,” 


24G 


PAINTING  IN  FRESCO. 


is  the  last  or  finishing  coat  of  plaster,  and  requires  to  be  very  thinly  and  evenly  laid  upon  others 
of  substantial  mortar,  which  should  be  previously  applied  and  finished  in  the  usual  manner  of  a 
carefully-prepared  wall. 

6G.  The  durability  of  fresco-paintings  is  so  dependent  upon  the  preparation  of  the  wall,  that 
the  utmost  care  in  this  particular  is  necessary.  The  quality  of  the  lime,  sand,  and  all  the  materials 
employed,  should  be  unquestionable;  and  none  but  the  most  skilful  and  reliable  workmen  should 
be  trusted  in  the  work.  The  final  coat  of  plaster  should  be  laid  under  the  artist’s  eye,  if  not  by 
his  own  hand. 

The  progress  of  a work  in  fresco  being  thus  by  portions,  each  of  which  must  be  completed  at 
once,  renders  it  necessary  that  a cartoon  or  drawing  of  the  whole  should  be  previously  prepared, 
as  well  as  that  the  arrangement  of  color  and  general  effect  should  be  decided  beforehand.  These 
cartoons  require  to  be  made  on  strong  paper.  Over  the  last  rough  plastering  a general  indication 
of  the  whole  subject  should  be  traced.  This  may  be  done  in  various  ways.  The  most  common 
method,  in  small  works,  is,  to  prick  the  outlines  through  with  a needle  to  a separate  sheet  of  paper, 
and,  by  means  of  a small  bag  of  thin  muslin  with  powdered  charcoal,  to  pounce  the  outline  through 
to  the  wall ; or  to  trace  it  thereon  with  a blunt  point  or  style,  which  is  the  most  common  prac- 
tice. This  serves  as  a guide  to  the  final  coat  of  plastering,  which  is  to  receive  the  painting, 
so  that  the  artist  can  proportion  each  day’s  work  with  exactness,  and  receive  assistance  in  his 
operations. 

The  final  coat  of  plastering  laid  over  just  sufficient  space  for  a day’s  work,  a more  elaborate 
tracing  is  made  thereon,  and  the  artist  proceeds,  with  all  possible  celerity,  with  his  work,  in  which 
a greater  difficulty  occurs  with  regard  to  the  appearance  of  the  colors  in  a wet  state  than  in  tem- 
pera ; for  allowance  has  not  only  to  be  made  for  the  variation  between  a pigment,  or  tint,  in  a moist 
or  dry  state,  but  for  the  peculiar  action  thereon,  both  by  the  lime  and  absorption  of  the  wall.  Fresco- 
tints  may  be  fully  developed  on  an  old  or  dried  wall  in  a few  days,  while  on  one  recently  plastered 
as  many  weeks  may  elapse  before  they  assume  their  permanent  appearance. 

67.  The  colors  are  ground  in  water  and  kept  ready  for  use  in  pots.  No  size  is  necessary, 
except  perhaps  a very  little  for  such  pigments  as  ultramarine,  charcoal  black,  etc.,  and  even  then 
with  very  questionable  propriety;  the  adhesive  property  of  lime  combined  with  water  being  the 
only  reliable  medium  for  color  in  fresco,  and  its  durability  dependent  upon  its  perfect  incorporation 
with  the  plaster. 

Not  only  the  original  pigment;,  but  also  as  many  tints  and  combinations  as  may  be  required, 


PAINTING  IN  FRESCO. 


247 


should  be  previously  prepared  in  cups,  so  as  to  insure  uniformity  and  harmony  throughout  the 
picture. 

The  best  method  of  testing  a tint  is  to  touch  it  on  a lump  of  dry  umber,  which  instantly 
imbibes  the  water,  and  shows  very  nearly  how  it  will  appear  when  dry.  Besides  the  cups,  a pal- 
ette of  japanned  or  painted  tin  may  be  requisite,  with  a cup  in  the  middle  for  water. 

The  tints  require  to  be  laid  on  rapidly  and  at  once.  The  first  applied  will  strike  in  and  he 
absorbed,  and  it  is  only  by  repetitions  that  a permanent  tint  may  be  obtained. 

The  brushes  employed  in  fresco  are  similar  to  those  used  in  oil;  square  or  flat  brushes,  with 
long  bristles  or  hair,  are  requisite  for  broad  tints. 

68.  The  Colors  which  can  be  used  with  safety  in  fresco  are  few,  and  only  such  as  are  not 
injuriously  affected  by  the  action  of  lime.  For  this  reason,  many  of  the  most  brilliant,  which  mav 
be  employed  in  other  methods,  must  be  excluded  from  fresco. 

For  Yellows  the  varieties  of  native  Ochres  afford  very  ample  resources;  Naples  vellow,  in  inte- 
rior works,  may  be  used  with  safety. 

Reds  are  supplied  from  the  ochres  calcined,  and  the  oxydes  of  iron.  Burnt  Terra  di  Siena  is 
an  invaluable  color  for  fresco. 

Ultramarine,  either  the  genuine  preparation  from  Lapis-Lazuli,  or  the  French  and  German 
imitations  of  it,  is  almost  the  only  pure  blue  that  can  be  employed. 

For  Greens,  Terra-verde  is  a most  reliable  pigment;  certain  oxydes  of  copper  maybe  em- 
ployed, but  great  care  is  requisite  in  their  management. 

The  Blacks  are  many : charcoal,  both  in  its  pure  state  and  in  combination,  will  be  found  very 
serviceable ; also  burnt  lamp-black. 

The  only  White  that  can  be  safely  employed  is  a purified  preparation  of  lime ; and  as  this  is  so 
extensively  required  throughout  the  picture,  the  utmost  precaution  is  necessary  that  it  should  be 
of  good  quality.  Many  artists  prefer  the  lime  of  oyster-shells,  selecting  the  best,  having  them 
carefully  washed,  and  afterward  burnt.* 

69.  Pictures  may  be  painted  in  fresco  on  a substantial  lathing,  or  upon  iron  or  copper  frames 
with  a wire-worked  foundation ; the  plaster  being  thereon  laid,  and  the  process  conducted  pre- 
cisely as  on  a wall;  and  the  picture,  when  completed,  may  be  set  in  its  place  as  permanently  as  if 

* The  white  for  fresco  most  esteemed  by  the  Italian  painters,  and  tion  repeated  for  a week ; and  the  lime  is  then  ground,  and  dried  in 
known  as  Bianco  Sangiovanni,  may  be  thus  prepared  : Air-slaked  lime  small  cones.  The  longer  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  better  will  be 

of  fine  quality  is  mixed  with  water  in  an  earthen  jar,  and  allowed  to  its  quality,  as  the  carbonic  acid  lost  by  the  process  of  calcination  is 

settle.  The  water  is  then  poured  off,  a fresh  supply  added,  the  opera-  tlm<  restored. 


24S 


PAINTING  IN  FRESCO. 


painted  directly  on  the  wall  itself.  This  method  offers  not  only  the  advantages  that  the  picture 
can  be  completed  in  the  studio,  but  also  affords  greater  facility  in  its  execution  from  the  fact  that 
(he  drying  of  the  plaster  can  be  retarded  by  wetting  it  from  the  back  of  the  picture,  hanging  before 
it,  during  suspension  of  work,  wet  cloths,  etc.,  and  thus  enabling  the  artist  to  devote  two  or  three 
days  to  each  portion.  For  those  who  desire  to  experiment  in  fresco-painting,  it  offers  great 
advantages. 

As  those  who  may  desire  to  attempt  fresco-painting  to  an  ambitious  extent  will  be  led  to  seek 
more  ample  directions  on  the  subject  than  can  possibly  be  afforded  by  an  elementary  work,  we 
leave  the  subject  with  sufficient  for  at  least  a trial,  and  with  the  assurance  that  they  will  find 
fresco-painting,  like  all  other  methods,  simple  and  easy  to  any  one  skilful  in  design,  and  practically 
as  well  as  theoretically  conversant  with  the  leading  principles  of  the  art  of  painting  by  any  other 
method. 

70.  For  mural  pictures,  fresco  certainly  offers  many  decided  advantages  in  its  peculiar  appli- 
cability to  all  positions,  and  may  be  successfully  employed  in  situations  in  which  an  oil-painting 
would  be  comparatively  lost,  by  reason  of  irregularity  of  surface,  cross-lights,  reflections,  etc. 

However  inadequate  it  may  be  for  successful  rivalry  with  oil-painting  in  excellence  of  color,  it 
at  least  affords  most  ample  means  of  expression  in  the  higher  requisites  of  design. 

While  the  value  and  capacity  of  painting  in  oil  were  gradually  developing  in  the  Venetian  and 
other  schools,  the  essential  requisitions  to  perfection  in  the  art,  accuracy  and  purity  of  design, 
advanced  with  equally  sure  and  steady  pace  in  those  of  Rome  and  Florence,  until  we  find  the 
great  masters  of  design  and  color  as  it  were  face  to  face  with  each  other.  When  Michael  Angelo, 
in  acknowledging  the  merit  of  Titian’s  color,  exclaimed,  “ What  a pity  it  is  that  these  Venetians  do 
not  draw  better!” — he  might  have  been  justly  replied  to  by  the  veteran  of  the  palette — “And  that 
these  Florentines  and  Urbinites  do  not  know  better  how  to  give  color  to  their  drawing!”  And 
yet  it  may  be  fairly  questionable  if  much  of  the  eminence  attained  by  either  in  their  respective 
qualifications  might  not  have  been  in  a great  measure  the  result  of  the  comparative  singleness  of 
purpose  with  which  they  pursued  the  objects  of  their  ambition. 

The  art  of  painting  would  appear  thus  to  have  reached  a period  of  advancement  from  which 
its  approach  to  the  utmost  possible  perfection  might  be  reasonably  anticipated  by  a combination  of 
learning  in  design  with  skill  in  color.  The  rival  schools  seem  for  a time  to  have  set  about  the 
work  of  learning  of  one  another.  The  great  colorists  sought  to  repair  their  deficiencies  in  drawing 
and  the  higher  attainments  in  design,  while  those  who  had  hitherto  placed  their  reliance  therein 
were  brought  to  feel  the  importance  of  color  as  well. 


PAINTING  IN  FRESCO. 


249 


In  vain  the  colorists  attempted  to  realize  by  fresco  the  results  which  they  had  achieved  in  oil. 
In  some  instances,  and  particularly  in  the  picture  by  Raphael  of  “ The  Miracle  of  Bolsena,”  a 
higher  degree  of  excellence  in  color  was  attained  than  had  hitherto  been  approached  in  fresco  ; 
yet  the  requirement  of  a more  efficient  method  of  mural  painting  was  still  felt.  Great  importance 
was  attached  to  the  durable  character  of  fresco,  which  it  maintained  from  the'  impression  that  it 
\tfas  the  only  approved  and  generally-employed  method  of  the  ancients  (72). 

71.  Sebastian  del  Piombo,  fortified,  as  is  alleged,  with  designs  by  Michael  Angelo,  and  famil- 
iarity with  the  process  of  oil-painting,  as  practised  by  the  Venetian  masters,  made  a most  successful 
experiment  in  mural  painting  in  oil,  which  even  at  this  day,  although  blackened  by  the  smoke  of 
candles,  and  from  causes  which  more  or  less  affect  all  paintings  in  oil,  besides  the  further  disadvan- 
tage of  being  executed  on  a concave  surface,  bears  very  favorable  comparison  with  his  fresco- 
works,  which  are  in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

Raphael,  than  whom  no  one  could  be  better  qualified  to  judge  of  the  distinctive  advantages  of 
the  two  methods,  seems  to  have  been  not  only  favorably  inclined  toward  the  substitution  of  oil  for 
fresco  painting,  but  at  the  time  of  his  death  to  have  decided  upon  its  adoption  in  the  embellishment 
of  the  great  Hall  of  Constantine  in  the  Vatican — preparations  for  which  were  in  progress  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  Two  groups  only  were  executed  in  oil,  if  not  by  his  own  hand,  at  least  by  his 
scholars  under  his  personal  direction,  and  it  must  ever  remain  a subject  of  the  deepest  regret  that 
his  death  should  have  prevented  the  completion  of  the  whole,  according  to  his  intentions. 

Raphael  was  not  of  an  experimental  turn  of  mind,  but  cautious  in  conclusions  and  timid  of 
failure;  hence  his  conclusions  were  always  judicious,  and  his  failures  rare.  From  the  earliest 
traces  of  his  career  to  the  last  moments  of  his  life  he  appears  to  have  been  singularly  free  from  the 
time-wasting  abstractions  which  have  too  frequently  diverted  the  impulses  and  energies  of  men  of 
genius,  and  therefore  the  more  importance  may  be  attached  to  this  innovation,  on  long-established 
opinions,  in  favor  of  oil  over  fresco  painting. 

That  this  lead  was  not  followed  successfully  by  succeeding  artists  might  appear  stranger  if 
other  causes  than  the  inapplicability  of  oil  to  mural  painting  were  not  obvious  in  the  art  falling  into 
a different  course  of  requirement,  which  it  scarcely  comes  within  our  province  to  discuss.  The 
last  works  of  importance  in  fresco  were  by  the  Caracci  and  their  scholars ; but  even  these,  with 
all  their  excellences,  bear  unfavorable  comparison  with  their  works  in  oil,  and  induce  the  regret 
that  they  were  not  executed  by  the  latter  more  effective  and  less  perishable  method.  For,  how- 
ever the  commonly-received  opinion  of  the  durability  of  fresco  may  prevail,  it  can  not  be  denied 

that  works  in  oil,  produced  by  masters  of  the  past  three  centuries,  are  at  this  day  in  far  bette: 

32 


250 


PAINTING  IN  WAX. 


state  of  preservation  than  their  frescoes.  Those  of  our  own  period  may  claim  the  advantages  of 
experience,  and  the  aid  of  greater  scientific  knowledge  in  the  management  of  materials,  which 
time  alone  can  verify. 

Fresco  is  still  practised  successfully  to  some  extent  in  Europe.  Many  artists  adhere  closely  to 
the  methods  of  the  early  masters.  Others  have  adopted  innovations  and  improvements,  by  which 
the  process  may  be  rendered  more  easy  and  effective,  as  well  as  reliable  in  resisting  the  action  of 
time  and  exposure. 

Recently,  however,  another  process  of  mural  painting  has  been  introduced,  or  rather  revived, 
which  offers  a combination  of  the  advantages  of  both  oil  and  fresco,  worthy  at  least  of  consid- 
eration. 

72.  Painting  in  Wax,  or  Encaustic,  has  recently  occupied  a considerable  amount  of  interest 
and  practical  experiment  in  Europe.  Although  the  process  is  so  called,  as  at  present  practised, 
it  differs  very  essentially  from  the  methods  employed  by  the  artists  of  antiquity,  with  whom  it 
was  a very  important  branch  of  art,  and  extensively  applied  to  decorative  and  other  purposes. 
There  seems  to  be  much  difficulty  in  arriving  at  a decided  opinion  with  regard  to  the  process  of 
encaustic  among  the  ancients,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  their  methods  of  employing  wax  as  a 
medium  of  color  — or  as  a preservative  varnish  or  saturation  applied  to  fresco  or  tempera — were 
various,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material  upon  which  the  painting  was  executed,  as  well  as 
to  its  subject  and  situation.  Much  investigation  and  study  have  been  bestowed  upon  the  subject 
(especially  in  France  and  Germany),  as  well  as  practical  experiment  by  artists  of  skill  and  repu- 
tation. 

In  the  method  most  generally  adopted  at  present,  the  employment  of  heat,  or  the  cauterium , 
is  discarded.  The  colors  are  ground  in  a wax  varnish,  or  medium,  which  is  used  throughout  the 
picture,  even  to  the  preparation  of  walls,  grounds  and  canvass,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
oil-painting. 

Of  the  preservative  qualities  of  wax  there  can  be  no  question  $ that  a medium  for  colors  formed 
upon  its  basis  may  possess  in  many  respects  obvious  advantages  over  oils,  may  be  equally  true ; 
and  we  have  the  assurance  of  artists  of  distinction,  who  have  become  practically  familiar  with  the 
process,  by  the  execution  of  extensive  works  therein,  that  it  involves  no  difficulties  which  can  not 
be  readily  comprehended  and  overcome  by  any  one  experienced  in  oil-painting.* 

It  further  offers  the  advantage  over  fresco,  that  works  of  any  dimension  may  be  executed  in 

* Painttng  in  Encaustic  may  be  found  very  amply  treated  in  the  volumes  8vo,  1828,  Paris),  and  by  many  other  able  writers  upon  the 
work  of  M.  Paillet  de  Montabert  (“  Traite  Complet  de  la  Painture,”  ten  subject. 


PAINTING  IN  PASTEL. 


251 


the  studio,  and  afterward  attached  as  firmly  to  walls  as  if  they  were  painted  thereon.  All  facilities 
and  expedients  that  are  available  in  oil-painting  are  equally  so  in  this  method  5 and  there  is  cer- 
tainly much  less  liability  to  alteration  in  the  tints  from  natural  causes,  which  more  or  less  affect 
works  in  oil  by  the  action  of  time,  or  from  dampness  and  exposure. 


73.  Painting  or  Drawing  in  Pastel,  or  Colored  Crayons,  may  not  only  be  employed 
advantageously  for  sketches  and  studies,  but  also  in  the  production  of  very  pleasing  and  effective 
pictures.  The  process  is  very  simple,  and  command  of  it  may  be  very  readily  attained  by  any 
one  possessing  a just  comprehension  of  the  general  principles  of  painting,  and  their  practical 
application  by  other  methods. 

The  paper  for  pastel  should  be  stretched,  in  the  manner  advised  for  water-colors,  and  of  a 
substantial  character,  not  too  highly  sized.  If  slightly  rubbed  over  with  fine  pumice-powder,  the 
crayons  will  both  work  and  adhere  better ; or  a slight  coat  of  thin  starch,  with  pumice-powder, 
may  be  given  with  a broad,  soft  brush,  as  a preparation.  Fine  canvass  thus  prepared  may  also 
be  used. 

Crayon  drawings  have  the  disadvantage  of  liability  to  injury,  unless  defended  by  glass,  or  some 
process  by  which  the  pigments  may  be  more  firmly  attached  to  the  paper  than  it  is  possible  to 
effect  by  the  mere  friction  employed  in  their  application.  Whatever  process  may  be  resorted  to, 
we  know  of  none  that  does  not,  in  some  degree  at  least,  materially  affect  the  clearness  and  purity 
of  the  tints,  although  even  this  in  some  cases  may  be  turned  to  advantage  by  judicious  treatment ; 
as  a crayon-drawing,  thus  fixed,  may  be  worked  over  with  tempera  or  water-colors,  or  even  with 
oil,  by  the  further  application  of  varnish.* 


* The  following  may  be  considered  among  the  most  approved  meth- 
ods of  fixing  drawings,  or  paintings  in  crayon : To  a saturated  solution 
of  alum,  in  pure  water,  add  as  much  fish-glue  as  may  form  a size  of 
proper  consistency  (which  can  only  be  regulated  by  the  character  of  the 
drawing  for  which  it  is  intended).  Let  the  solution  stand  for  about 
thirty-six  hours,  after  which  it  should  be  boiled.  Pass  this  glue-water, 
saturated  with  alum,  through  a linen  cloth,  and  add  about  an  equal 
quantity  of  some  colorless  spirit  or  diluted  alcohol.  For  a small 
drawing,  an  ordinary  dish  may  answer;  but,  if  large,  a wooden  or  other 
tray,  water-tight,  must  be  provided  for  the  solution  ; and,  holding  the 
drawing  horizontally,  face  downward,  gently  immerse  it  therein,  cau- 
tiously guarding  against  its  touching  the  bottom.  Almost  instantly  lift 
it  out,  without  changing  its  horizontal  position,  in  which  it  must  re- 
main until  dry,  when  the  success  of  the  process  may  be  readily  ascer- 
tained. 

A drawing  thus  treated  may  be  varnished  by  the  further  application 
of  fish-glue,  to  which  is  added  about  one  third  of  spirits  of  wine.  When 
this  is  dry,  the  ordinary  spirit-varnish  may  be  passed  over. 


Another  method  is,  to  pounce  over  the  drawing  very  evenly,  by 
means  of  a gauze-sieve,  finely-powdered  gum-arabic,  after  which  it  is 
exposed  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water. 

The  various  recipes  for  securing  crayon-drawings  by  means  of  vola- 
tile oils  are  very  inefficient. 

As  we  have  known  so  many  drawings  to  be  utterly  ruined  by  expert 
mental  attempts  at  fixing  them,  we  advise  no  one  to  make  his  first  tidal 
on  one  of  value.  Glass  is  their  surest  preservative. 

To  mount  a drawing  on  glass  — procure  a pane,  or  plate,  of  the 
proper  size ; clean  it  perfectly  with  a little  whiting  or  chalk,  and  run 
a nan-ow  border  around  it  of  strong  glue.  Very  slightly  dampen  the 
back  of  the  drawing,  and  lay  it  face  downward  on  the  glass ; and  be 
certain 'of  a perfect  adhesion  of  the  paper  on  the  edges,  which  it  mav  be 
better  to  extend  over  them  sufficiently  to  form  a border.  Place  the 
drawing,  thus  mounted,  on  a cloth  or  several  sheets  of  paper  laid  upon 
a flat  board  or  table,  and  over  it  another  dry  cloth,  with  a drawing- 
board,  or  with  one  or  more  large  books,  not  too  heavy,  and  let  it  remain 
until  perfectly  dry. 


252 


PAINTING  IN  PASTEL. 


The  color  of  the  paper,  or  ground,  is  a matter  of  choice,  and  can  only  he  regulated  by  the 
nature  of  the  subject.  Paper  of  a gray  tint  is  most  generally  preferred. 

In  laying  in  the  masses,  and  in  blending  the  tints,  both  the  stump  and  finger  may  be  used,  as 
well  as  a bat  of  cotton,  or  a soft  rag. 

The  Swiss  crayons  are  universally  considered  to  be  the  best.  Crayons  put  up  in  paper  are 
most  convenient  for  sketching,  as  they  are  thus  rendered  less  likely  to  be  broken  in  the  pocket  or 
in  handling.  The  colored  pencils  prepared  by  Wolfe  and  Sons,  of  London,  and  sold  under  the 
name  of  Creta  Laevis,  are  admirably  adapted  for  sketching,  besides  possessing  the  property  of 
adhering  very  firmly. 

Having  sufficiently  dilated  upon  the  most  generally-practised  methods  of  painting  to  answer 
all  reasonable  requirements  of  beginners,  we  have  only,  in  conclusion,  to  urge  upon  them  the 
importance  of  perseverance  in  their  attempts,  and  that  they  should  ever  bear  in  mind  that  the 
leading  principles  of  the  art  and  their  application  are  common  to  all  methods  and  subjects.  Let 
them  not  be  disheartened  by  failure,  nor  assume  unwarrantable  confidence  from  partial  success, 
unless  it  be  attended  by  comprehension  of  the  means  by  which  it  has  been  achieved.  Doubtless 
there  may  be  many  who  have  felt  disappointed  to  find  so  little  done  for  them,  and  so  much  depen- 
dent upon  their  own  exertions,  and  who  may  still  imagine  that  they  only  require  more  minute 
directions  to  reach  the  attainment  of  excellence.  To  such  we  would  quote  the  reply  of  Rem- 
brandt to  one  of  his  scholars : “ Try  to  put  in  practice  what  you  already  know ; in  so  doing,  you 
will  in  good  time  discover  the  hidden  things  which  you  now  inquire  about.” 


ITH  regard  not  only  to  its  consideration  as  a valuable  and  effective  application  of 
drawing  to  practical  purposes,  but  also  to  its  service  in  maturing  the  hand  to  decision 


254 


E TCHING. 


and  accuracy  of  execution,  and  in  various  other  ways  assisting  to  a knowledge  and  command  of 
the  principles  of  design,  the  art  and  practice  of  Etching  deserves  much  higher  estimation,  and 
earlier  trial  by  learners,  than  it  is  generally  imagined  to  merit.  The  process  is  most  simple.  Any 
one  who  can  draw  can  etch  ; and  in  many  respects  it  may  be  even  easier  to  produce  a finished 
and  effective  result  by  the  etching-point  than  by  either  the  pen  or  pencil. 

2.  An  etching  is  but  a drawing  made  with  steel  points  or  needles,  set  in  convenient  handles 
(which  are  held  and  managed  as  a pen  or  pencil),  upon  a plate  of  metal  over  which  there  has 
been  previously  laid  a black  varnish,  or  ground.  The  metal,  laid  bare  by  these  points  in  lines 

marked  with  great  distinctness,  from  the  strong  contrast 
of  the  bright  metal  against  the  dark  ground,  affords  the 
artist  the  utmost  advantage,  in  both  the  progress  of  his 
work  and  in  forming  a correct  judgment  of  its  effect — 
notwithstanding  that  the  lines  appear  light  and  the  ground 
dark.  This,  in  some  respects  like  drawing  upon  a slate, 
may  be  found  at  first  embarrassing,  but  with  a little  prac- 
tice as  perfect  a command  of  lines, thus  expressed,  is  ac- 
quired as  if  they  were  shown  in  black.  The  drawing  completed,  over  the  whole  is  poured  a corro- 
ding acid,  which  takes  effect  upon  the  metal  exposed  by  the  lines  of  the  drawing,  and  is  resisted  by 
the  ground  in  such  parts  as  remain  untouched.  The  process  of  corrosion  being  properly  conducted, 
the  ground  is  then  removed,  and  the  lines  of  the  drawing  are  found  to  be  eaten,  or,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically termed,  u bitten  in ” the  metal,  to  a depth  capable  of  holding  printers’  ink.  The  plate  is 
then  covered  with  such  ink,  which  is  wiped  off  in  a manner  to  leave  all  the  lines  full,  while  such 
parts  as  were  protected  from  the  action  of  the  acid  by  the  ground,  or  varnish,  remain  clean.  By 
means  of  a rolling-press  the  plate,  thus  charged  with  the  design,  delivers  it  with  the  utmost  fidelity 
to  paper,  and  with  a capacity  of  repetition  to  thousands  of  perfectly  similar  impressions,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  work,  and  the  nature  of  the  metal  employed. 

3.  That  an  art  so  simple  in  its  process  should  not  be  more  generally  practised  than  it  is,  by 
both  artists  and  amateurs,  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  unnecessary  amount  of  difficulties 
which  is  commonly  imagined  to  be  involved  in  its  successful  management,  while  there  is  nothing, 
in  truth,  therein,  to  place  proficiency  beyond  the  reach  of  easy  attainment  by  any  one  skilful  in 
drawing,  and  especially  with  the  pen.  To  artists  the  etching-needle  supplies  a means  of  meeting, 
in  a most  efficient  manner,  the  extensive  requirement  which  exists  for  design  in  literary  illustra- 


ETCHING. 


255 


tions,  of  which  they  should  avail  themselves.  An  engraving  at  best  is  but  a translation,  often 
poorly  compensating,  by  an  exhibition  of  mechanical  dexterity,  for  the  spirit  of  an  original  work. 
Nor  are  the  inducements  to  trial  less  with  the  amateur  than  with  the  artist,  from  the  various 
resources  of  gratification  as  well  as  indulgence  of  commendable  ambition  which  it  may  supply, 
even  to  those  who  seek  the  ways  of  art  for  the  enjoyment  alone  which  they  afford. 


4.  There  is  something  irresistibly  tempting  to  trial  in  the  look  of  efficiency  and  feeling  of  apt- 
ness to  the  hand  of  an  Etching  Point  or  Needle — far  more  so  than  either  pen,  crayon,  or 
pencil,  or  any  other  instrument  for  drawing  that  we  know  of — always  preserving  a firm  and  equal 
point — producing  a certain  and  even  line  — no  cutting  away  or  breaking — no  blotting  or  spat- 
tering— hut  true  and  reliable  as  the  good  steel  of  which  it  is  made.  Then  the  metal  of  the 
plate  holds  with  such  gently-yielding  firmness  to  the  pressure,  affording  an  agreeable  rest  to  the 
hand,  and  at  the  same  time  admitting  the  utmost  freedom  in  its  movements.  That  all  who  can 
draw  do  not  avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  they  possess  for  its  agreeable  and  efficient  employ- 
ment, can  only  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  they  can  not  be  aware  of  the  ease  of  its  successful 
management,  and  of  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  its  use. 

5.  The  practice  of  etching  formerly  prevailed  among  artists  to  a much  greater  extent  than  at 
present,  although  there  are  many  of  our  own  time  who  have  very  successfully  thus  extended  and 
perpetuated  their  reputations.  How  much  has  been  lost  for  want  of  trial  by  many  others,  and 
how  much  may  be  yet  accomplished  by  such  trial,  can  not  be  doubted.  Therefore  should  the 
attention  of  the  art-student  be  called  early  and  earnestly  to  the  subject.  For  conducting  the 
merely  mechanical  portion  of  the  process,  a very  few  directions  will  be  sufficient ; the  skill  requi- 
site to  its  successful  application  rests  with  the  artist. 

6.  The  metal  plates,  upon  which  etchings  are  most  commonly  made,  are  either  of  copper  or 
steel.  The  latter  offers  advantages  in  capacity  of  yielding  a greater  number  of  impressions;  but 
for  ease  of  management,  especially  to  a beginner,  the  former  is  much  more  generally  employed. 

7.  Plates  are  to  be  procured  ready  prepared.  They  should  always,  however,  be  carefully 
examined  previous  to  beginning  an  etching  upon  them.  In  doing  this  we  have  occasion  at  once 


25G 


ETCHING. 


for  a suitable  table  or  desk,  and  a blind  of  tissue-paper  arranged  with  reference  to  the  light,  etc., 
in  a manner  which  may  be  better  understood  by  illustration  than  verbal  direction,  and  which  will 

further  show  the  most  convenient  and  generally-adopted  dis- 
position of  appliances  for  etching.  By  placing  the  plate  on 
the  desk,  and  rubbing  it  over  with  an  Oil-Rubber  (which  is 
nothing  more  than  a long  strip  of  cloth,  or  flannel, 
about  two  inches  wide,  rolled  up  as  tightly  as  pos- 
sible, and  made  solid  by  being  well  wrapped  with 
twine,  and  then  trimmed  evenly  on  the  ends 
with  a sharp  knife),  all  scratches  and  blemishes,  which  would 
injuriously  affect  the  work,  will  at  once  become  evident.  A 
very  little  oil,  either  olive  or  lamp  oil,  should  be  applied  with 

jjj  the  rubber.  If  scratches  are  numerous,  the  plate  should  be  returned  to  the 

Jj|  ( 

“ 1 preparer,  unless  the  artist  is  willing  to  expend  the  strength  and  patience 
requisite  to  give  it  a proper  polish,  by  means  of  pumice,  oil-stone,  charcoal, 
burnishers,  and  finally  the  oil-rubber,  to  which  he  will  be  obliged  to  have  recourse.  At  all  events, 
we  would  scarcely  recommend  a beginner  to  try  the  experiment. 


8.  If  the  plate  is  in  good  condition,  of  which  it  requires  very  little  experience  to  be  capable 
of  judging,  nothing  further  is  necessary  than  to  clean  it  carefully  with  whiting  and  a dry  rag, 
cautiously  observing  that  it  is  perfectly  free  from  oil,  or  any  greasy  substance. 

Etching-Grounds,  in  balls  and  of  different  qualities,  may  be  procured  of 
engravers,  or  at  the  shops  where  engravers’  tools  are  sold,  the  harder  kind 
being  best  adapted  for  use  in  summer  and  the  softer  in  winter.  Before  using, 
these  balls  should  be  tied  up  tightly  in  stout  yet  fine  silk.* 


* The  following  are  approved  recipes  for  Etching-Grounds  : — 

I. 

“ To  two  ounces  of  Asphaltum  add  one  of  Burgundy  Pitch  and  one 
ounce  and  a half  of  White  Virgin  Wax.  The  asphaltum  should  be 
finely  powdered,  and  then  melted  in  a glazed  earthen  vessel  over  a 
moderate  fire,  before  the  Burgundy  pitch  is  putin.  The  wax  must  be 
added  last,  when  the  whole  composition  must  be  well  stirred,  and  then 
poured  into  warm  water,  to  be  further  incorporated  by  means  of  the 
hands,  and  made  up  into  balls.” 

II. 

“ Take  of  Virgin  Wax  and  Asphaltum  each  two  ounces  ; of  Black 
Pitch  and  Burgundy  Pitch  each  half  an  ounce.  Melt  the  wax  and  pitch 


in  a new  earthenware  glazed  pipkin,  and  add  to  them  by  degrees  the 
asphaltum,  finely  powdered.  Keep  the  whole  upon  a gentle  fire  until 
it  is  in  a state  that,  by  dropping  a little  upon  a plate,  it  will  break, 
when  it  is  cold,  by  bending  it  two  or  three  times  between  the  fingers. 
The  varnish  may  be  then  taken  off  the  fire,  and  allowing  it  to  cool  a 
little,  should  be  poured  into  warm  water,  that  it  may  be  worked  more 
easily  with  the  hands  into  balls. 

“ N.  B.  — The  mixture  must  be  simmered  only,  not  allowed  to  boil, 
and  should  be  stirred  continually.  The  water  into  which  it  is  poured 
should  be  about  its  own  temperature.  More  asphaltum  will  make  the 
ground  harder  for  use  in  summer,  and  less  soft  for  winter.” 


ETCHING. 


257 


A Dabber  is  next  to  be  provided,  which  may  be  readily  made  by 
stretching  a piece  of  silk,  of  as  even  and  fine  texture  as  can  be  pro- 
cured, over  a disk  of  about  two  or  two  and  a half  inches 
diameter,  made  of  stout  card  or  pasteboard,  between 
which  and  the  silk  there  is  a bat  of  fine  wool,  or  a mix- 
ture of  wool  and  raw  cotton — the  silk  being  gathered 
and  tightly  bound  on  the  upper  side  to  serve  as  a handle. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  both  the  dabber  and  etching-balls  free  from  dust  and  grease 
of  any  kind. 


11.  To  lay  an  Etching-Ground  — the  plate  should  be  held  by  a hand-vice  over  the  flame 

of  a spirit-lamp,  or  of  more  than 
one  lamp  if  the  plate  be  large, 
observing  to  move  it  constantly 
over  the  flame,  so  as  to  effect  an 
equal  amount  of  heat  to  every 
part  of  it.  Or,  the  heating  may  be  effected  by  holding  under  the  plate  a roll  of 
ignited  paper.  The  objection  to  this  latter  method  is,  that  burnt  particles  and 
ashes  from  the  blazing  paper  are  apt  to  be  scattered  about,  and  cause  annoy- 
ance. Another  method  of  heating  a plate,  and  one  well  adapted  for  those  that 
are  large,  is  by  means  of  the  flame  from  a rag,  placed  in  a tin  or  other  safe 
dish,  and  saturated  with  spirits  of  wine.  When  the  plate  is  sufficiently  hot  to 
produce  pain  to  the  touch,  or  a hissing  from  the  contact  of  the  moist  finger,  it  is 
warm  enough.  Proceed  to  rub  the  ball  of  etching-ground  gently  over  it  in  every  direction.  The 
heat  from  the  plate  causing  the  ground  to  ooze  through  the  silk,  it  may  be  very  evenly  distrib- 
uted thereon,  which  should  not  be  more  than  sufficient  in  quantity  perfectly  to  cover  the  plate. 
The  distribution  of  the  ground  on  the  plate  is  to  be  completed  by  dabbing  it  with  light  touches, 
and  by  regular  courses  all  over  with  the  dabber  while  still  warm ; 
carefully  observing  that  the  plate  does  not  get  too  cool  in  the 
process,  which  may  be  easily  detected  by  the  dabber  leaving  dead 
or  matted  impressions  on  the  ground,  in  which 
the  plate  must  be  again  slightly  heated  until  the  g 
presents  a clear  and  flowing  appearance.  The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  guard  against  the 

falling  of  dust  or  motes  upon  the  ground  while  it  is  warm. 

33 


258 


ETCHING. 


12.  The  plate  is  then,  while  still  warm,  to  be  held 
horizontally,  face  downward,  and  to  be  smoked  wit! 
an  ignited  twist  of  wax-taper  gently  moved  under  ii 
in  every  direction  (at  a sufficient  distance 
from  the  flame  to  avoid  risk  of  burning),  un- 
til it  become  thoroughly  and  evenly  blackened. 

It  should  be  then  placed  carefully,  face  to  the 
wall,  to  cool  j after  which  the  ground  is  ready  for 
the  best  effort  of  the  artist’s  hand. 

Great  caution  is  necessary  lest  the  plate  get 
too  hot  in  the  process,  as  in  such  case  the  ground  may 
and  even  break  in  minute  cracks.  This  may  be  guarded 
against  by  observing  that  the  heat  is  at  no  time  so  great  as  to  cause 
the  ground  to  smoke.  If  the  slightest  indication  of  smoke  appeal’s,  it  should  be  instantly  removed 
from  over  the  lamp. 


13.  As  the  precise  degree  of  heat  which  should  be  given  a plate  in  laying  an  etching-ground 
is  a matter  of  much  importance,  and  somewhat  difficult  to  regulate,  without  experience,  the 
following  surer  means  of  conducting  the  operation  may  be  advisable.  Procure  a water-tight 
box  of  tin  or  copper,  about  say  a foot  wide,  eighteen  inches  long,  and  from  two  to  three  inches 
deep,  with  a small  spout  at  one  end,  by  which  it  may  be  filled  with  boiling 
water,  and  by  which  the  steam  may  escape,  if  it  be  found  necessary  to  keep 
the  water  to  a boiling-point  by  placing  a spirit-lamp  beneath  it.  On  this  the 
plate  may  be  laid,  not  only  to  heat,  but  to  remain  throughout  the  process  of  laying  the  ground, 
with  greater  certainty  of  its  not  getting  too  hot,  besides  being  in  many  other  respects  more  con- 
venient and  safe  than  by  using  spirit-lamps,  etc. 


14.  To  draw  or  calqije  an  outline  or  sketch  of  a design  upon  the  ground,  or  to  transfer 
thereto  an  elaborate  drawing,  which  may  be  required  to  direct  the  artist  in  his  work,  without  scoring 
through  the  ground,  or  exposing  the  metal,  may  be  done  in  various  ways.  The  learner  may  be 
advised  in  his  first  trial  to  make  a slight  but  careful  tracing  of  his  subject  upon  tracing  or  trans- 
parent paper.*  Adjust  this  tracing  to  its  required  position  on  the  plate  by  means  of  bits  of  wax 

* Very  good  and  serviceable  tracing-paper  may  be  made  by  rubbing  ture  of  equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and  spirit  of  turpentine  or  of  mastic  var- 

over  a sheet  of  tissue-paper,  with  a soft  rag  or  bat  of  raw  cotton,  a mix-  nisli,  which  must  afterward  be  hung  in  the  sun  for  a day  or  two,  to  dry. 


ETCHING. 


259 


on  the  margin,  or  at  the  corners,  beneath  which  slip  a piece  of  tissue-paper,  prepared  by  being 
rubbed  over  with  red  chalk,  or  vermilion,  on  the  side  next  the  ground,  and  with  a moderately  hard 
pencil,  or  a blunt  etching-point,  retrace  the  whole,  which,  upon  removal  of  the  tracing  and  pre- 
pared tissue  paper,  will  be  found  accurately  calqued  and  repeated  on  the  ground,  without  having 
broken  through  it,  or  touched  the  plate.  Artists  who  are  sure  of  hand,  and  experienced,  often 
sketch  in  at  once  their  design  upon  the  prepared  tissue-paper,  or  upon  another  piece  of  thin  paper 
laid  over  it,  with  a lead-pencil,  without  a tracing.  If  a very  elaborated  drawing  is  required  to  be 
transferred  to  the  ground,  such  as  a careful  reduction  from  a picture,  etc.,  the  drawing  should  be 
made  upon  smooth  writing-paper  with  a moderately  hard  pencil  (f— h or  h— : b),  which  is  then  to  be 
well  damped,  adjusted  face  to  the  ground  in  its  proper  position,  and  passed  through  a copperplate 
printers’  press,  and  the  drawing  is  transferred  to  the  ground  in  clear,  silvery  lines,  with  the  advan- 
tage also  of-  being  reversed. 


15.  Previous  to  beginning  with  the  etching,  a rest  for  the  hand  should  be  provided,  so  that  it 
may  not  in  the  progress  of  the  work  rub  against  the  ground. 

A sort  of  bridge,  made  of  a thin  strip  of  wood,  or  a broad 
7 ruler,  with  supports  at  each 

UF' 

end,  of  a proper  height,  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  purpose.  An  equally  effective  and 
in  some  respects  more  convenient  method  is,  to  attach  to 
the  margin  of  the  plate,  by  means  of  wax,  narrow  strips 

of  soft  wood,  of  millboard,  or,  still  better,  of  stout,  solid  leather,  sufficiently  thick 
to  prevent  a ruler  laid  across — upon  which  the  hand  may  rest  — from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  ground. 


16.  The  plate  properly  prepared,  the  ground  successfully  laid  thereon,  the  design  traced  in, 
and  a conveniently-arranged  desk  and  blind  provided,  the  etching-point  may  be  taken  in  hand,  and 
the  work  commenced : in  the  progress  of  which  we  would  rather  leave  the  artist  to  the  guidance 
of  his  judgment,  skill,  and  ingenuity,  than  attempt  to  offer  precepts  for  his  direction  which  may  be 
more  effectively  inculcated  by  trial,  practice,  and  observation  of  the  works  of  others.  To  say  that 
there  are  not  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  the  attainment  of  excellence  in  etching,  would  be  to 
mislead.  How  successfully,  however,  all  may  be  met  by  a right  spirit  of  perseverance,  those  who 
have  given  it  fair  trial  know  full  well.  Everything  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  artist  in  design, 
his  knowledge  of  the  power  and  effect  of  lines  in  representing  forms  and  textures,  lights  and  shad- 


ETCHING. 


2(30 


ows  5 and  accordingly,  as  may  be  the  maturity  of  his  capacity  in  these  respects,  will  be  the  measure 
of  his  success.  Let  him  not  look  too  ambitiously  to  emulation  of  the  mechanical  dexterity  of  the 
engraver,  but  rather  seek  suggestions  which  will  prove  more  available  to  him  from  artist-etchings. 

By  engravers  the  etching-needle  is  much  and  efficiently  employed.  Almost  all  the  lines  in 
Landscapes  are  thus  laid  in.  The  highly-finished  Landscapes  of  modern  engravers  are  almost 
entirely  etchings,  as  well  as  a great  deal  of  all  other  subjects,  especially  in  backgrounds  and 
accessories. 


17.  It  is  advisable  that  the  beginner  should  try  simple  subjects  first  — such,  if  he  can  obtain 
them  to  copy,  as  some  good  specimens  of  artist-etcliings , in  which  the  management  and  effect  of 
lines  are  obvious,  arid  in  which  there  are  few  dark  and  confused  masses.  It  is  well  also  at  first 
that  he  should  not  embarrass  himself  by  attempting  to  reverse  his  copies,  so  that  when  printed 
they  may  have  the  same  direction  as  the  original.  His  efforts  should  be  favored  in  every  way  in 
gaining  progressively  initiation  and  practical  knowledge  of  the  means  as  well  as  of  the  capacity 
of  the  art.  Heads  and  figures  of  animals — trees  and  groups  of  foliage  — are  particularly  well 
adapted  to  early  attempts. 


CARL  DU  JARDIN 


E T C H I N G. 


*?(52 


18.  The  etching  completed,  it  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  any  accidental  scratches  or 
erroneous  lines  stopped  out  with  a varnish  made  of  Asphaltum  dissolved  in  Spirits  of  turpentine , 
applied  with  a camel’s-hair  pencil.  Or,  where  the  corrections  are  trivial,  a little  of  the  ground 
may  be  taken  off  the  margin  with  a camel’s-hair  pencil  moistened  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 

neatly  touched  over  the  part.  For  this  purpose  a magnifying-glass 
may  prove  of  much  assistance,  as  indeed  it  may  be  employed  to  advan- 
tage in  many  if  not  in  all  parts  of  the  work.  Engravers  make  more 
general  use  of  the  magnifying-glass  than  artist-etchers : how  much 
more  advantageous  it  might  be  for  the  former  to  use  it  less,  and  the  latter  more,  may  be  profitably 
considered. 

The  plate  has  now  to  be  made  ready  for  the  acid  by  a wall  or  border  of  wax.* 

19.  To  apply  the  Bordering- Wax. — Work  it  in  the  hands,  or  in  tepid  water,  until  prop- 
erly ductile.  Then  form  it  into  strips  of  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  thick,  according  to  the  size 


* Bordering-wax  may  be  made  by  melting  together,  over  a slow 
fire,  one  pound  of  Burgundy  Pitch  and  five  ounces  of  common  Bees- 
wax. When  melted,  add  a little  olive-oil.  After  the  mixture  has 


become  somewhat  cool,  pour  it  into  water,  and  work  it  well  with  the 
hands.  — A mixture  of  five  parts  of  Beeswax  and  one  of  Venice  Turpen 
tine,  treated  in  the  same  manner,  makes  very  good  bordering-wax. 


ETCHING. 


263 


of  the  plate.  While  warm,  press  it  down  evenly  around  the 
margin  of  the  plate  with  the  thumb,  and  thus  mould  it  into  a 
complete  and  water-tight  wall,  observing  to  leave  at  a conve- 
nient place  a spout  by  which  the  acid  may  be  poured  off.  Test 
the  security  of  the  wall  by  flooding  the  plate  with  water,  and  after  a few  minutes  pour  it  off  by 
the  spout  as  you  would  do  the  acid. 

20.  The  Acid  almost  universally  employed  for  biting  in  copper  is  Nitric  Acid.  Other  mix- 
tures are  sometimes  used,  but  for  most  if  not  for  all  purposes  of  the  etcher,  nitric  acid  diluted  with 
water  answers  every  requirement.  The  acid  should  be  kept  in  a glass  bottle,  with  a ground-glass 
stopper.  Provide  a similar  bottle,  with  a large  mouth.  In  this  mix  about  one  part  of  pure  acid 
with  five  parts  of  water.  Pour  as  much  of  this  mixture  over  the  plate  as  will  cover  it  to  the  depth 
of  at  least  a quarter  of  an  inch,  and  let  it  remain  for  the  biting  of  the  delicate  parts  from  ten  to 
twenty  minutes.  Immediately  on  pouring  the  acid  mixture  on  the  plate,  the  effect  of  the  corro- 
sion, which  takes  place  in  the  lines,  will  be  perceived  by  their  assuming  at  first  a greenish-white 
appearance,  and  afterward  by  the  formation  thereon  of  minute  bubbles,  which  must  be  gently 
swept  off,  as  they  accumulate,  with  a broad  camel’s-hair  brush,  or  a feather.  A sufficient  depth 
of  line  having  been  obtained  may  be  ascertained  by  pouring  off  the  acid,  washing  the  plate  with 
water,  and  carefully  drying  it  with  a soft  towel,  or  blotting-paper,  and  leaving  it  to  the  air  for  a few 
moments,  and  then  scraping  off  a small  portion  of  the  ground  from  some  unimportant  place. 
Many  give  their  plates  but  one  biting,  and  rely  upon  after-expedients  in  their  completion,  while 
others  manage  by  means  of  the  acid  to  produce  the  utmost  delicacy  and  at  the  same  time  the 
greatest  depth  of  line.  After  a first  biting,  all  such  parts  as  are  found  to  be  sufficiently  deep  are 
stopped  out  with  varnish,  for  which  purpose  that  of  asphaltum  and  spirits  of  turpentine  answers 
very  well.  This  soon  becomes  dry,  and  as  thoroughly  protects  the  metal  of  the  plate  from  the 
action  of  the  acid,  in  an  after-biting, as  the  original  etching-ground.  The  acid  is  again  poured  over 
the  plate,  and  an  increase  of  tint  is  given  to  such  parts  as  may  require  it,  which  are  again  stopped 
out  as  before.  The  process  is  thus  carried  on  in  repeated  bitings  until  a sufficient  depth  is  ob- 
tained for  the  darkest  parts. 

21.  The  wall  is  now  to  be  removed,  by  gently  heating  the  back  of  the  plate,  and  the  ground 
and  varnish  to  be  washed  off  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  The  plate  is  then  to  be  rubbed  over  with 
the  oil-rubber,  when  a pretty  correct  judgment  may  be  formed  of  the  success  of  the  work,  and 
which  may  be  further  verified  by  a proof  from  the  printer. 


264 


ETCHIN  G. 


22.  Many  may  experience  disappointment  in  seeing  the  first  proof  of  their  first  work — some 
that  it  should  be  no  better,  others  that  it  should  be  so  well;  some  may  wonder  at  their  fail- 
ure after  much  pains,  and  others  marvel  how  they  have  been  so  successful.  To  all  we  say,  try 
again. 

If,  on  examination  of  the  proof,  the  whole  or  parts  of  the  etching  may  appear  too  feeble, 
although  the  process  requires  a good  deal  of  nicety,  the  plate  may  be  rebitten ; that  is,  a ground 
may  be  replaced  over  the  plate,  by  which  its  smooth  surface  may  be  protected  from  the  acid,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  lines  left  exposed  to  its  action. 

23.  To  rebite  a Plate  — first  wash  it  thoroughly  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  then  with  lye, 
and  lastly  with  water,  carefully  drying  it  with  a clean  rag.  It  is  then  to  be  heated  as  in  the  first 
instance.  Have  ready  and  heated  in  like  manner  another  clean  copper  plate.  On  this  melt  and 
distribute  a small  quantity  of  etching-ground,  as  before  directed.  Then,  with  the  silk  dabber , not 
overcharged  with  the  ground,  proceed  by  light  and  regular  touches  to  cover  the  plate,  to  be  rebit- 
ten, with  it,  but  at  the  same  time  leaving  the  lines  clear.  To  this  end  great  caution  is  necessary, 
lest  the  plate  get  too  hot,  in  which  case  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  prevent  the  ground  from  flowing 
into  the  lines ; and,  if  not  hot  enough,  the  ground  will  be  so  imperfectly  applied  to  the  plate  in 
general  as  not  sufficiently  to  resist  the  action  of  the  acid.  To  lay  a good  rebiting-ground  requires 
both  experience  and  dexterity.  In  laying  a rebiting-ground  the  hot-water  box  will  be  found  par- 
ticularly serviceable  (13).  The  ground  successfully  relaid,  the  process  of  biting  in  may  be  pro- 
ceeded with  as  in  the  first  instance. 

If  only  certain  parts  require  to  be  increased  in  depth,  a full  ground  may  be  laid  over  the  plate, 
covering  up  equally  the  lines  with  the  rest  of  it.  The  ordinary  etching-ground  will  generally  serve 
for  this  purpose,  although  in  many  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  employ  another  through  which  the 
work  on  the  plate  may  appear  more  clearly.*  In  such  cases  (as  also  in  a rebiting-ground),  the 
plate  should  not  be  blackened  by  smoking  it  with  the  taper.  With  care,  the  lines  which  may 
require  to  be  increased  in  depth  may  be  re-entered  with  the  etching-point  and  rebitten.  Or, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  the  graver.f 


* Transparent  etching-ground  may  be  made  by  combining  together 
over  a gentle  fire  one  ouncoof  common  rosin  and  two  ounces  of  virgin  wax. 
When  cool  it  is  ready  for  use,  and  is  laid  as  the  ordinary  ground. 

A good  coating  of  mastic  varnish,  applied  with  a brush,  and  suffered 
to  remain  a few  hours,  makes  a very  good,  transparent  etching-ground. 
If  left,  however,  for  any  length  of  time  on  the  plate,  it  will  become 
brittle. 


t It  may  be  recommended  to  learners  to  make  memoranda  of  their 
experiments  in  conducting  the  process  of  biting  and  rebiting  their 
plates  — as  to  the  strength  of  the  acid  employed  the  time  that  it  is 
left  on  the  plate,  and  the  parts  which  are  acted  on  at  each  biting. 
Such  memoranda,  compared  with  proofs  from  the  plates,  will  be  found 
of  great  service  in  directing  future  operations,  and  also  as  guards  against 
failures. 


etching 


265 


24.  Gravers  are  employed  of  different 
forms,  square  or  lozenge.  For  the  purpose  of 
the  etcher,  the  square  tools  are  'most  to  be 
recommended. 


25.  The  Burnisher,  if  portions  of  an  etching  are  found  to  be  too 
dark,  may  be  often  very  effectively  employed  in  reducing  the  depth  and 
width  of  lines,  as  well  as  in  graduating  or  entirely  erasing  tints  or  lines 
if  they  are  not  too  deep.  In  many  ways  this  instrument  may  be  used  to 
advantage  which  practice  and  trial  of  its  capacity  for  service  will  suggest. 


26.  The  Scraper  is  generally  employed  to  cut  off  the  burr  made 
by  the  turning  up  of  the  metal  on  the  sides  of  lines  which  are  but 
slightly  bitten  or  only  dry  pointed. 


27.  Dry-pointed  Lines  are  such  as  are  made  on  the  bare  copper  with  the  etching-needles, 
without  being  bitten  in  with  the  acid.  They  are  often  very  effectively  employed  in  retouching 
and  finishing  a work,  especially  in  light  and  delicate  parts. 


28.  Many  employ  etching-points  of  several  degrees  of  sharpness,  so  as  to  produce  at  one  biting 
a greater  variety  of  lines  and  texture,  and  by  scoring  the  point  lightly  or  deeply  into  the  metal, 

which  is  much  more  readily  done  on  copper  than  on  steel. 

34 


266 


ETCHING. 


29.  To  sharpen  the  Etching-Point,  requires  some  little  dexterity.  Cut  in  your  oil-stone  a 
slight  groove,  rest  the  handle  of  the  instrument  in  the  hollow  of  the 
right  hand,  and,  placing  the  fingers  of  the  left  across  it,  by  a com-  c 
pound  motion  backward  and  forward  — at  the  same  time  rolling  it 
in  the  groove  — an  even  point  may  be  produced,  which  should  be 
slightly  rounded  or  deprived  of  its  extreme  sharpness  on  a strap  of  leather,  or 
on  a bit  of  soft  wood  coated  with  emery  and  tallow. 

30.  To  set  the  Point  of  a Graver,  with  an  equal  bevel,  may  also  cause  some  trouble  to  a 

y]  beginner.  To  preserve  steadiness  in  the  graver  in  setting  it,  have  a 

small  block  of  hard  wood,  about  three  inches  long,  and  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  or  an  inch  square,  pierced  with  holes,  into  which  the  graver 
may  be  firmly  retained  at  a proper  angle,  yet  sufficiently  free  to 
be  pressed  on  the  stone  in  grinding  it  away. 

Great  caution  is  requisite,  in  using  the  graver,  that 
the  point  is  in  good  condition,  lest  it  lose  its  hold  on 
A'/'1  the  metal,  and  be  driven  mischievously  across  the 
plate.  The  state  of  the  point  may  be  tested  by  touch- 
ing it  gently  on  the  thumb-nail.  By  the  same  means, 
that  of  etching-points  may  be  ascertained. 

31.  Gravers  and  etching-points  as  they  are  purchased  generally  require  that  the  temper  of  the 
metal  should  be  reduced,  which  may  be  ascertained  by  the  brittleness  of  their  points.  To  reduce 
their  temper,  either  hold  them  in  the  flame  of  a lamp,  or  on  a piece  of  hot  iron,  until  they  assume 
an  orange  or  straw  colored  tint,  when  they  should  be  instantly  plunged  into  oil  or  tallow.  If 
heated  until  they  take  a bluish  tint,  they  will  become  too  soft.  The  degree  of  reduction  of  temper, 
or  hardness,  of  steel,  which  takes  place  under  the  application  of  heat,  is  very  clearly  indicated  by 
the  change  of  color  which  occurs  on  the  polished  surface  of  the  metal  in  the  following  order,  ac- 
cording to  the  intensity  of  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected,  viz.:  straw-tint — citron — golden — orange 
— purple — pigeon’s-wing — deep  blue — dull  blue — bluish  gray — and  gray. 


32.  Of  the  various  expedients  of  which  the  etcher  may  advantageously  avail  himself,  it  is  use 
less  to  make  mere  mention.  Were  it  possible  for  us  to  place  before  the  learner  as  numerous 
specimens  as  we  desire  of  the  many  admirable  works  of  painters  and  others  who  have  exercised 
their  skill  and  genius  in  this  delightful  and  beautiful  application  of  design,  they  might  easier  see  for 


ETCHING. 


267 


themselves,  than  we  can  explain  to  them,  the  extent  of  its  capacity.  There  is  no  subject,  however 
delicate  or  however  forcible — from  the  faintest  outline  to  the  most  elaborate  finish  and  depth  of 
shadow,  or  effect — that  may  not  be  expressed  by  etching,  and  that  too  with  all  the  ease  and  feeling 
of  an  original  design. 

In  urging  upon  both  artists  and  amateurs  trial  of  their  strength  with  the  etching-point,  we 
know  we  shall  be  acquitted  of  over-earnestness  in  the  matter  by  results — not  only  by  what  they 
may  be  able  to  accomplish  therewith,  but  by  the  advantages  which  they  will  hence  derive  in  the 
practice  of  any  other  branch  of  art  to  which  their  impulses  may  be  more  singly  and  earnestly 
directed.  To  some,  perhaps,  there  may  appear  to  be  involved  in  the  practice  too  great  an  amount 
of  mere  mechanical  manipulation  to  suit  their  tastes  or  convenience.  True  it  may  be  that  pol- 
ishing copper  plates,  handling  corrosive  and  staining  acids,  and  tenacious  varnishes,  are  not  exactly 
suited  to  the  delicacy  of  a lady’s  fingers ; yet,  for  all  that,  even  they  need  not  be  intimidated  from 
trying.  The  operation  of  etching  may  be  conducted  with  as  much  neatness,  and  as  free  of  annoy- 
ance to  one’s  self  and  to  others,  as  any  other  of  the  numerous  “modern  accomplishments”  pro- 
fessed and  taught  in  our  schools,  though  seldom  practised  to  any  valuable  purpose  out  of  them. 
In  all  our  cities  there  are  engravers  from  whom  may  be  obtained  plates  with  grounds  ready  laid 
thereon,  etching-points  and  tools  in  proper  condition  for  use,  and  who  may  be  willing  to  relieve 
amateurs  even  of  the  trouble  of  biting  in  their  plates.  This  may  be  well  enough  for  a beginning  ; 
but  there  is  little  venture  in  the  prediction  that,  if  they  go  but  a little  further,  they  will  be  very 
unwilling  to  relinquish  any  part  of  the  process  to  others. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  may  be  many  who  possess  the  inclination  and  capacity  to  make  trial 
of  etching  without  having  facilities  for  procuring  the  few  necessary  instruments  and  materials 
required.  Such  even  need  not  be  deterred  from  the  experiment,  and  may  rest  assured  that  the 
secret  of  success  lies  more  in  the  artist’s  capacity  of  mind,  and  hand,  and  eye,  than  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  his  tools.  A common  darning-needle,  set  in  a wooden  handle,  makes  as  good  and  efficient 
an  etching-point  as  the  best  that  can  be  bought.  A three-sided  saw-file , ground  down  to  a point 
at  one  end  as  a scraper , and  at  the  other  into  shape,  and  well  polished  on  a hone,  and  finally  with 
emery  upon  a leather  strap,  as  a burnisher , may  as  well  combine  both  in  one  instrument.  Any 
country  blacksmith,  from  an  old  file,  can  shape  a graver , and  temper  it  rightly  too ; possibly  not 
as  well  as  Fenn  of  London,  or  Renard  of  Paris,  yet  still  to  serve.  Even  for  copper  plates,  upon 
an  emergency,  there  is  scarcely  a village  in  our  land , where  they  could  not  be  prepared,  to  meet 
the  requirement  of  a determined  will  to  have  them,  by  planishing  with  a smooth-faced  hammer  on 
an  anvil — levelling  with  pumice-stone  and  water  — and  finally  polishing  by  a progressive  applica- 
tion of  charcoal,  emery,  whiting,  and  the  oil-rubber. 


ETCHING. 


260 


33.  There  is  a recently-appropriated  application  of  the  etching-needle,  which,  by  the  aid  of  the 
photographic  process,  on  many  considerations,  may  offer  greater  facility  of  execution,  and  advan- 
tages in  other  respects  over  etching  on  metal,  both  to  amateurs  and  artists. 

A plate  of  glass  is  prepared  — by  first  washing  it  thoroughly  with  the  lye  of  wood-ashes,  or  a 
solution  of  potash  in  water,  so  as  to  render  it  perfectly  free  from  greasiness,  and  to  insure  the  ad- 
hesion of  an  even-coating  of  white-lead,  finely  ground  in  starch  (not  made  too  thick),  and  applied 
with  a large  soft  brush.  This  coating,  or  ground,  should  not  be  laid  too  thick,  but  just  sufficiently 
so  to  cover  the  glass,  and  to  exclude  the  passage  of  light.  The  state  of  the  ground  may  be  readily 
tested  by  holding  the  plate  between  the  eye  and  the  light.  When  the  ground  is  perfectly  dry  — the 
plate  of  glass  should  be  laid  upon  a piece  of  black  cloth,  or  paper,  and  the  design  made  thereon 
with  etching  points  of  various  degrees  of  sharpness,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  and  effect 
desired.  Every  fine  and  touch  will  appear  in  black  with  the  utmost  distinctness — and,  by  occa- 
sionally reversing  the  plate,  the  effect  will  of  course  appear  equally  clear  in  that  position. 

The  drawing  completed:  the  glass-plate  is  then  to  be  gently  immersed  (in  a horizontal  position) 
in  a bath  composed  of  a solution  of  sulphurated  potash  (liver  of  sulphur)  and  water.  In  a few 
minutes  the  coating  of  white-lead  will  become  intensely  black — leaving  the  lines  clear.  As  soon 
as  this  occurs  the  glass  must  be  gently  lifted  from  the  solution  and  allowed  to  become  perfectly  dry. 
A thin  coating  of  varnish  may  then  be  passed,  or  'better  still,  floated  over  the  whole,  by  which  the 
ground  will  be  rendered  more  firm.  When  the  varnish  is  dry,  the  plate  may  be  printed  from,  pre- 
cisely in  the  manner  of  a photographic  negative. 

One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  this  process  is,  that  drawings  and  sketches  may  be  made 
directly  from  nature  with  the  utmost  facility.  They  can  be  worked  upon  by  any  light  and  under 
any  circumstances  that  a design  on  paper  can  be  made.  Almost  any  number  of  impressions  may 
be  repeated  with  the  utmost  exactness,  and  much  effectiveness  may  be  further  given  in  the 
process  of  printing  by  means  which  will  be  obvious  to  those  familiar  with  that  of  photogra- 
phy— of  whom  the  artist  may  readily  learn  all  necessary  practical  details — which  are  extremely 
simple. 

Therer  are  other  methods  of  preparing  the  glass-plate,  etc.  — but  that  given  we  have  found  to 
be  not  only  the  most  simple  but  in  many  respects  most  effective  and  certain  of  any  with  which  we 
are  familiar. 

34.  The  process  of  etching  on  copper  embraces  the  general  principles  of  its  application  to  all 
other  metals,  with  such  variation  as  their  peculiar  natures  may  require.  Steel  presents  some  diffi- 
culty, on  account  of  the  great  uncertainty  which  attends  its  biting  and  rebiting,  the  difference  in 


270 


ETCHING. 


the  texture  and  degree  of  hardness  of  different  plates,  and  other  peculiarities,  which  experiment 
will  render  obvious,  and  practice  and  perseverance  best  direct  to  the  means  of  overcoming.  The 
various  mixtures  and  combinations  of  acids  which  have  been  recommended  for  biting  steel,  would 
till  pages  ; and,  after  all,  it  may  be  very  well  doubted  if,  as  a reliable  corrosive,  anything  can  be 
better  adapted  to  the  requirement  of  the  etcher  than  nitric  acid,  more  or  less  diluted  with  water. 
We  know,  indeed,  that  some  of  the  best  etchers  on  steel,  after  experimenting  with  endless  recipes, 
have  arrived  at  this  conclusion.  The  proportions  which  may  be  recommended  are  from  sixty  to 
seventy  drops  of  nitric  acid  to  a pint  of  water.  Less  acid  is  even  to  be  advised  for  early  experi- 
ments, and  great  precaution  is  necessary.  For  the  faintest  lines,  even  on  and  off  may  be  enough, 
while  one  or  two  minutes  may  suffice  for  the  stronger  lines.  Steel  plates,  after  being  bitten  in, 
should  be  very  carefully  washed,  and  dried  as  soon  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  rusting  of  the  lines  ; 
and,  after  the  removal  of  the  ground,  the  oil-rubber  should  be  instantly  applied.  When  laid  aside 
for  any  length  of  time,  they  should  be  heated  and  covered  with  tallow  or  wax,  or  a coating  of 
asphaltum-and-turpentine  varnish. 

35.  The  various  and  effective  applications  of  etching,  in  many  of  the  ornamental  arts,  render 
a practical  knowledge  of  the  process  of  further  importance.  Thus  the  most  highly-artistic  designs 
may  be  wrought  directly  on  metals  with  a degree  of  freedom  and  beauty  attainable  by  no  other 
means.  In  cases  where  an  ordinary  etching-ground  can  not  be  conveniently  laid,  mastic  or  any 
other  such  varnish  may  be  employed,  with  the  addition,  if  necessary,  of  any  coloring  substance, 
such  as  lamp-black,  asphaltum,  oxyde  of  bismuth,  etc.  For  biting  in  an  etching  on  brass  or  silver, 
nitric  acid  diluted  with  water  may  be  used.  Gold  is  acted  upon  by  nitro-muriatic  acid  ( aqua 
regis ).  Designs  may  be  drawn  and  stained  upon  ivory,  bone,  wood,  etc.,  with  great  ease  and 
effectiveness,  by  employing  a staining  solution  in  like  manner  that  a corroding  acid  is  used  in  biting 
in  metals.  Even  glass,  agate,  rock-crystal,  and  silicious  stones,  may  be  etched  upon  by  the  em- 
ployment of  fluoric  acid.  Stones  of  a calcareous  nature  are  acted  on  by  nitric  acid. 

36.  Soft-Ground  Etching  was  formerly  much  employed,  to  imitate  chalk  or  pencil  drawings; 
but,  since  the  invention  of  Lithography,  it  has  fallen  into  disuse.  The  ground  for  this  method  of 
etching  is  made  by  adding  to  three  parts  of  common  etching-ground  one  part  of  hog’s  lard,  for  use 
in  winter,  and  less  lard  in  summer.  It  is  laid,  and  blackened  by  smoking,  as  the  hard  etching- 
ground. 

Having  prepared  an  outline  of  the  subject,  on  a piece  of  smooth  and  thin  writing-paper,  some- 
what larger  than  the  plate,  damp  it  thoroughly,  spread  it  carefully  over  the  ground,  and  glue  the 


ENGRAVING  IN  AQUATINT. 


271 


edges  firmly  on  the  back  of  the  plate.  When  dry,  it  will  be  perfectly  smooth.  A rest  for  the 
hand  must  be  provided  (15).  Proceed  to  draw  the  subject  on  the  paper,  with  a moderately  hard 
pencil  (f.  h.  b.,  h.,  or  b.),  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  weather,  the  nature  of  the  work,  and 
the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  ground.  The  drawing  completed,  lift  the  paper  carefully  from  the 
plate,  and  every  touch  and  trace  of  the  pencil  will  be  marked  by  the  sticking  of  portions  of  the 
ground  to  the  paper,  and  a corresponding  exposure  of  the  copper.  A wall  is  then  to  be  placed 
around,  and  the  plate  is  to  be  bitten  in  precisely  in  the  manner  of  a line-etching.  According  to 
the  success  with  which  the  acid  is  applied,  will  be  that  of  the  work.  If  too  faint,  a rebiting  ground 
of  hard  etching-ground  may  be  laid,  and  the  plate  managed  precisely  as  has  been  previously 
indicated  in  cases  of  hard-ground  etching. 

37.  Etching  on  Stone  is  so  similar,  as  far  as  the  artist’s  hand  is  required,  to  etching  on  cop- 
per, that  any  one  who  has  practised  the  latter  will  find  little  difficulty  therein.  Lithographic 
printers  are  always  ready  to  supply  the  stones  prepared  for  the  work. 

Drawing  on  Stone,  or  Lithography,  is  of  an  easy  acquirement  to  any  one  who  can  use  the 
pencil  or  crayon  with  facility. 

38.  Engraving  in  Aquatint  will  be  readily  understood  and  may  be  successfully  practised  by 
any  one  familiar  with  the  use  of  the  camel’s-hair  pencil  in  water-colors,  and  with  the  process  of 
biting  in  an  etching  by  means  of  aquafortis. 

Grounds  for  aquatint  are  either  laid  by  sifting  over  a plate  finely-powdered  resin,  which,  when 
partially  heated  from  the  back  of  the  plate,  gathers  in  minute  granulations  close  together,  but  leav- 
ing sufficient  space  between  each  other  to  allow  of  action  of  acid  upon  the  metal  thus  left  bare  ; 
or,  by  pouring  over  the  plate  a varnish,  or  solution  of  resin  in  alcohol,  which,  after  the  draining  off 
and  evaporation  of  the  fluid,  leaves  it  in  a similarly  granulated  state. 

A proof  from  a plate  thus  prepared,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  acid,  would,  if  closely  exam- 
ined with  a lens,  present  the  appearance  of  an  elaborate  network  of  lines.  As  the  plate  may  have 
been  more  or  less  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  acid,  these  lines  would  be  more  or  less  deep  and 
broad,  and  consequently  producing  a tint  more  or  less  intense,  from  the  imitation  of  the  faintest 
stain  or  wash,  of  Indian  ink,  to  black.  To  arrest  the  action  of  the  acid  at  a proper  moment,  so  as 
to  secure  certain  gradations  of  tints,  by  means  of  “stopping  out”  with  an  acid-resisting  varnish, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  give  to  such  tints  their  proper  form,  comprises  the  motive  and  effective 
application  of  aquatint. 

Although  this  method  of  engraving  is  not  so  much  practised  as  formerly,  it  affords  manv 


272 


ENGRAVING  IN  MEZZOTINT. 


advantages  which  recommend  it  to  the  consideration  of  artists  and  amateurs,  whether  employed 
alone  or  in  combination  with  etching,  etc.  With  skilful  management,  it  is  certainly  capable  of 
very  effective  results,  and  is  particularly  applicable  to  landscape  and  architectural  subjects,  or  to 
any  purpose  of  engraving  in  which  the  effect  of  flat  tints,  or  washed  drawings,  may  be  desired  to  be 
expeditiously  reproduced.  Simple  as  the  process  of  aquatint  engraving  is,  however,  it  involves  so 
many  delicate  operations,  in  laying  the  grounds,  applying  the  acids,  stopping  out,  etc.,  that,  unless 
ihose  who  may  desire  to  experiment  therein  can  avail  themselves  of  the  instruction  of  a practical 
engraver,  we  would  advise  them  to  refer  to  some  standard  work  upon  the  subject  for  more  ample 
directions  than  we  can  take  space  to  supply.*  It  is  scarcely  likely  that  many  would  be  induced 
to  make  trial  of  aquatint  engraving  for  merely  amateur  purposes,  and  the  few  who  may  have  more 
practical  objects  in  view  will  naturally  desire  all  the  information  on  the  subject  that  can  be  obtained. 


39.  Mezzotint  Engraving  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  painters  and  artists 
skilful  in  design.  A mezzotint  plate  prepared  for  a design  presents  a surface  entirely  roughened 
by  minute  indentations  in  the  metal,  and  by  a burr  raised  by  the  tool  with  which  they  are  made. 
A proof  taken  by  a press  from  a plate  in  this  state  would  present  an  intensely  black  tint.  If  the 
slightest  portion  of  the  ground  be  scraped  off,  it  would  be  marked  in  the  proof  by  a fainter  tint 
which  would  be  more  or  less  intense  according  to  the  amount  of  burr  and  indentation  removed; 
the  untouched  ground  giving  the  deepest  black,  and  white  being  only  attainable  by  entirely  remov- 
ing the  ground  and  burnishing  the  metal.  The  work  of  the  artist,  therefore,  consists  in  availing 
himself  of  the  nature  of  the  ground  to  scrape  out  his  design  or  picture  from  black  to  white,  which  is 

effected  by  means  of  lancet- 
shaped  scrapers  and  bur- 
nishers of  various  forms  and 
sizes.t  Throughout  the  pro- 
cess, a very  correct  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  state  of  the  plate,  which  under  the  blind  of  tissue- 
paper  (7)  is  shown  almost  as  clearly  as  it  would  be  in  an  impression  on  paper  from  the  press. 


40.  Mezzotint  engraving,  from  the  picture-like  yet  in  many  respects  coercive  character  of  the 
process,  as  well  as  its  capacity,  is  more  effectively  applicable  to  original  designs  than  indiscriminate 
copying,  unless  the  original  works  in  effect  and  character  harmonize  with  and  come  within  the 

* “ The  Art  of  Engraving,”  by  T.  H.  Fielding,  London  ; “ Nouveau  become  dull,  and  in  other  respects  to  work  to  disadvantage.  After  whet- 

Manuel  Complet  de  Graveur,”  etc.,  par  M.  Purrot,  Paris ; etc.  ting  them  on  the  sides,  they  should  be  held  on  the  oil-stone  at  an  angle 

t Scrapers  should  not  have  too  acute  an  edge.  In  that  state  they  of  about  forty  degrees,  and  in  that  position  they  should  be  gently  ground 
are  not  only  liable  to  scratch  the  plate  injuriously,  but  also  very  soon  to  to  an  even  bevel. 


ENGRAVING  IN  MEZZOTINT. 


273 


compass  of  its  capabilities.  Hence  the  artist  who  works  from  his  own  designs,  or  realizes  it  directly 
on  the  plate,  does  so  with  advantage  over  the  mere  engraver  who  is  restricted  hy  the  exactions  of 
his  model.  There  is  no  species  of  engraving  in  which,  for  successful  practice,  more  depends  upon 
the  skill  and  dexterity  of  the  artist,  and  none  less  affected  by  accidental  difficulties. 

41.  With  professional  engravers  it  is  a very  common  custom  to  commence  a work  by  etching 
a general  outline  of  the  subject  in  the  plate,  in  a dotted  or  broken  manner,  to  harmonize  with  the 
character  of  the  ground,  which  is  afterward  laid  thereon.  Many  carry  this  operation  still  further 
by  the  employment  of  the  graver,  in  adding  force  and  appropriate  texture  to  certain  parts  in  which 
such  requirement  may  be  anticipated.  Artist-mezzotintists,  however,  particularly  those  who  work 
from  their  own  designs,  most  generally  prefer  to  endeavor  first  to  realize  their  designs  from  the 
mezzotint  ground,  holding  recourse  to  etching,  etc.,  as  a reserve,  or  after-process.  The  ground 
being  prepared,  they  sketch  or  trace  thereon  an  outline  of  the  subject  with  fine  red  or  white  chalk, 
or  with  a soft  black-lead  pencil.  Further  to  secure  such  outline,  it  may  be  slightly  hut  firmly  drv- 
pointed  with  an  etching-needle,  by  lines  of  great  clearness,  without  injury  to  the  ground,  unless 
scored  too  deeply.  As  a precaution  against  accidental  encroachment  upon  the  parts  and  masses 
of  intense  black,  which  it  may  be  desirable  to  preserve  untouched  by  the  scrapers,  it  may  be  pru- 
dent to  touch, or  draw  in,  such  parts  with  Indian  ink,  asphaltum  varnish,  or  something  of  the  kind, 
especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the  plate.  After  the  design  has  been  in  a sufficient  degree  devel- 
oped upon  the  plate,  such  guards  will  be  no  longer  necessary,  and  may  be  washed  off.  This 
expedient  may  be  further  resorted  to,  not  only  with  regard  to  the  deepest  tints,  but  also  to  subor- 
dinate masses. 

The  operation  of  scraping  down  the  ground,  from  dark  to  light,  should  be  conducted  with  the 
utmost  caution,  and  with  constant  reference  not  only  to  the  effects  of  light  and  shadow,  but  also  to 
the  details  of  the  subject.  The  scraper  should  not  be  too  vigorously  employed  ; and  the  whole 
process  should  be  gradually  carried  on  by  gentle  and  well-guarded  erasure  of  the  ground.  Bur- 
nishers should  only  be  used  on  the  lightest  parts,  and  after  the  burr  has  been  entirely  removed. 
Proofs  may  be  taken  at  any  period  of  advancement  of  the  plate. 

It  is  certain  that  very  beautiful  and  effective  results  have  been  produced  by  pure  mezzotint, 

without  recourse  to  any  other  process.  Still,  much  that  may  be  not  only  difficult  if  not  impossible 

to  produce  by  mezzotint  alone,  such  as  extreme  sharpness  and  decision  of  outline,  texture,  etc., 

may  be  added  after  the  plate  has  been  advanced  as  far  as  it  can  be  by  its  means,  by  laying  over 

the  whole  a transparent  etching-ground  (23),  through  which  the  work  may  be  sufficiently  distinct 

to  add  whatever  touches,  force,  or  further  finish,  that  the  etching-needle  can  supply.  It  may  be 

35 


274 


ENGRAVING  IN  MEZZOTINT 


further  stippled  in  the  lighter  parts  with  the  graver,  but  great  care  is  requisite  in  so  doing,  espe 
cially  in  removing  the  burr  left  by  the  graver.  As  all,  however,  who  may  attempt  mezzotint  will 
be  naturally  led  to  the  examination  and  study  of  the  numerous  productions  in  that  style  that  can 
be  so  readily  obtained,  and  in  which  the  various  methods  and  expedients  that  have  been  resorted 
to  in  their  execution,  a little  practical  experience  will  render  easy  of  discovery,  they  may  hence 
learn  more  of  the  art  than  any  written  directions  can  afford  them. 


42.  Roulettes  of  various  forms,  character  of  teeth,  and  effect,  are  often  advantageously 


resorted  to.  to  recover  texture  and  tints,  or  to  vary  the  character  of  the  former  according  to  the 
nature  and  requirement  of  the  subject;  also  Shading-Tools  of  different  sizes  and  degrees  of 


width  of  tooth.  It  is  quite  sufficient  to  see  and  handle 


-1 these  tools  to  know  the  manner  of  their  employment.  Their 

efficiency  must  be  learned  by  use  of  them. 


43.  To  lay  a Mezzotint  Ground  is  an  undertaking  that  few  are  advised  to  venture  upon 
as  an  essay  in  the  art,  unless  it  be  impossible  for  them  to  procure  one  ready  prepared.  It  is,  how- 
ever, rather  a laborious  than  difficult  process,  requiring  the  exertion  of  much  care  and  patience. 
The  tools  with  which 


grounds  are  laid  are 
called  Cradles,  and 
are  of  various  sized 
teeth  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  ground 
for  which  they  may  be  required.  The 
method  of  setting  these  cradles  on  the  oil-stone,  and  keeping  them  in 
proper  order  in  using,  will  be  readily  understood. 


ENGRAVING  IN  MEZZOTINT. 


275 


The  feeling  of  a cradle  to  the  hand,  and  its  effect  upon  the  surface  of  a 
plate  of  metal  by  a rocking  motion,  will  clearly  indicate  its  purpose  and 
action,  which  will  be  further  exemplified  by  impelling  it  gently  forward,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  rocking  motion  is  continued.  This  forward  motion, 
if  extended  across  the  plate  in  a direct  course,  leaves  a track  of  dots  or 

indentations  therein,  corresponding  to  the  teeth  of  the 

cradle,  and  at  the  same  time  a slight  burr  around  each  dot.  Such  courses, 
repeated  in  every  direction  over  the  plate,  produce  a perfectly  and  equally 
roughened  surface,  capable  of  holding  a sufficient  quantity  of  ink  to  produce,  from  the  press,  an 
intensely  black  impression  on  paper. 

As  it  is  of  much  importance  that  these  courses  should  be  laid  with  the  utmost  regularity,  and 
that  all  parts  of  the  plate  should  be  equally  acted  upon  by  the  cradle,  some  method  may  be  found 
necessary  in  regulating  them.  To  this  end  various  expedients  may  be  resorted  to,  of  which  the 
following  is  one  very  generally  adopted : — 

First , with  fine  charcoal,  chalk,  or  pencil,  divide  the  plate  by  a set  of  parallel 
lines,  the  space  between  each  line  being  about  one  third  the  width  of  the  cradle. 

Start  the  cradle  in  the  middle  of  the  spaces,  and  work  it  forward  with  a regular 
and  steady  pressure,  at  the  same  time  rocking  it,  as  directed,  until  the  plate  is 
entirely  worked  over  in  one  direction.  For  the  second  course,  draw  a set  of  parallel  lines,  of 
the  same  distance  apart  as  the  first,  at  right  angles  thereto,  and  proceed  with  the 
cradle  in  like  manner.  The  third  course  requires  to  be  laid  in  a similar  way  in 
all  other  respects,  except  that  it  be  diagonal  to  the  first ; and,  consequently,  the 
fourth  will  be  equally  in  a diagonal  direction.  For  the  fifth  course,  draw  a set 
of  parallel  lines  upon  the  basis  of  a line  one  third  of  the  space  between  those  already  drawn,  and 
either  above  or  below  those  of  the  first  course.  These  are  to  be  again  crossed 
by  others  at  right  angles  thereto,  and  at  a point  one  third  of  the  space  between 
the  parallels  already  drawn.  A set  of  parallels,  diagonal  to  these,  will  give  the 
limits  and  direction  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  course.  For  the  ninth  and  tenth 
course,  the  basis  of  the  remaining  third  of  the  division  of  the  parallels  is  to  be  taken,  and  so  on  their 
diagonals  for  that  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth — observing  that  each  set  of  paral- 
lels should  be  worked  over  by  the  cradle  as  they  are  drawn.  These  twelve 
single  courses  make  what  is  called  one  complete  course  ; but  the  plate  will  be 
found  to  be  not  sufficiently  wrought  over  to  produce  a full  and  reliable  ground. 

Whatever  traces  of  the  lines  remain  may  now  be  washed  off  with  spirits  of  turpentine;  and, 


V. 


276 


ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD. 


according  as  the  number  of  full  courses  may  be  requisite,  must  be  the  premises  upon  which  the 
others  are  started  — avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  ever  to  repeat  a track  of  the  cradle  precisely  in 
the  same  direction  as  that  of  one  already  made.  For  a well-prepared  ground,  often  five  or  six  full 
courses,  each  of  twelve  sets  of  single  tracks,  may  be  required. 


44.  It  is  advisable  that  a first  trial  in  laying  a ground  should  be  made  on  copper,  as  it  is  less 
liable  than  steel  to  break  the  teeth  of  the  cradle,  which  can  only  be  avoided  by  preserving  the 
utmost  steadiness  of  hand.  The  cradle  should  always  be  kept  in  perfect  order.  The  disadvantage 
of  copper  for  mezzotint  is  that  of  its  want  of  capacity  for  yielding  more  than  a very  limited  number 
of  good  impressions } and,  further,  in  requiring  the  utmost  precaution  in  handling,  as  the  slightest 
scratch  or  bruise  on  a mezzotint  ground  may  seriously  injure  it.  For  the  latter  reason,  however, 
it  may  not  be  considered  objectionable  for  beginners,  as  it  thereby  exacts  more  neatness  and  care- 
fulness, leading  to  habits  which,  if  not  equally  requisite  in  working  upon  the  harder  metals,  are 
still  important. 


45.  Engraving  in  Line  and  Stipple,  being  more  professional  in  character,  and  coming  less 
within  the  capacity  and  probable  purposes  of  the  artist  and  amateur,  can  scarcely  be  considered 
subjects  for  treatment  in  an  elementary  work,  however  skill  in  design  and  comprehension  of  the 
leading  principles  of  art  may  be  essential  to  their  successful  practice. 


/q.  ngraving  on  Wood  is  also  a branch  of  art  which  few  artists  or  amateurs 
^ would  desire  to  undertake,  unless  for  the  satisfaction  of  experiment.  Many, 
however,  possessing  taste  and  skill  in  design,  as  well  as  those  who  delight  in  em- 
ployments exercising  delicate  manipulations,  might  most  profitably  indulge  their 
inclinations  in  its  practice.  To  whatever  extent  this  method  of  engraving  may 
involve  a great  and  absolute  requirement  of  a certain  amount  of  purely  me- 
chanical dexterity,  it  equally  requires  the  exercise  of  a degree  of  proper 
judgment  and  comprehension  of  the  principles  of  design,  which  deservedly  elevate  the  art 
beyond  that  of  a merely  mechanical  employment. 

In  engraving  and  etching  on  metal,  lines  are  expressed  by  incision ; while  on  wood  they 
are  left  untouched  by  the  graver,  and  in  relief.  The  method  by  which  impressions  are  made 
from  them  is  also  entirely  different,  being  precisely  the  same  as  from  ordinary  types.  Hence 
its  advantages  over  all  other  styles  of  engraving  for  book-illustrations,  as  they  can  be  printed  with 
the  letter-press  at  one  and  the  same  operation. 


s 


ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD. 


277 


Box-wood  is  most  generally  employed  for  wood-cuts.  The  blocks  are  sawed  from  well-seasoned 
logs,  crosswise  the  grain,  after  which  they  are  planed  and  dressed  down  to  a thickness  equal  to  the 
exact  length  of  types,  and  further  prepared  for  the  drawing  by  rubbing  over  with  pumice-stone  and 
water,  or  Bath  brick,  to  which  may  be  added  a slight  coating  of  white  lead,  or  of  Chinese  white. 
The  white  rubbed  off  a glazed  card,  with  a broad  brush  with  water,  and  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  block  by  a rapid  motion,  which  should  be  continued  until  the  moisture  is  absorbed,  produces 
an  admirable  preparation  for  the  drawing,  which  is  required  to  be  made  directly  on  the  block. 

The  drawing  may  be  made  in  various  ways — either  entirely  with  a hard  lead-pencil,  or  by  a 
combination  of  penciling  and  washing  in  Indian  ink,  etc.  Many  of  the  best  draughtsmen  for 
wood-engravers  in  Europe,  instead  of  using  Indian  ink,  make  a very  effective  application  of  the 
stump.  Drawings  made  entirely  by  pencil-lines  are  generally  engraved  in  fac-simile,  the  skill  of 
the  engraver  being  mainly  exerted  to  preserve  them  as  far  as  possible  without  variation.  In 
washes  and  flat  tints,  he  must  necessarily  exercise  his  judgment  in  the  selection  of  their  character. 
Before  beginning  the  cut,  a piece  of  smooth  paper  is  laid  over  the  face  of  the  drawing, 
drawn  tightly  over  the  edges  of  the  block,  and  firmly  pasted  to  its  sides.  A small  portion  of 
the  paper  is  then  cut  away.  The  engraving  of  the  portion  of  drawing  thus  exposed  is  entirely 
finished  before  another  is  laid  bare,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  is  completed.  The  block  is  held 
by  the  left  hand  on  a leather  bag  of  sand,  or  shot,  so  as  to  allow  the  utmost  freedom  in  its 
movement ; for,  in  using  the  graver,  a corresponding  action  of  both  hands  may  be  frequently 

required.  Wood-engravers  generally  work  with  a lens,  which  they 
either  hitch  under  the  eyebrow,  in  the  manner  of  a watch-maker,  or 
fix  in  a stand  with  a moveable  arm,  and  a ball 
and  socket-joint,  or  by  some  such  contrivance,  by 
which  it  may  be  kept  in  a proper  and  convenient 
position  5 to  be  employed  or  not,  as  may  be  required 
in  the  progress  of  the  cut. 


47.  The  Gravers  employed  for  wood-engraving  are  similar  to  those  for  metal.  They  are, 
however,  set  with  more  acute  points.  Tint-tools  and  Gouges  of  various  sizes  are  also  requisite  5 

the  former  being  used  in  cutting  flat  and  even  tints, 
the  latter  for  clearing  away  superfluous  wood,  etc.  \ 


278 


ENGRAVING  ON  WOOD. 


48.  To  take  a Proof  from  a Wood-cut,  without  a Press.  — With  a dabber  of  silk,  kid, 
or  Indian-rubber,  gently  but  evenly  cover  the  lines  with  type-printer’s  ink,  avoiding  its  application 
to  excess.  Lay  upon  an  open  book,  or  upon  several  folds  of  paper,  a piece  of  India  paper  of  a 
proper  size,  which  should  be  previously  rubbed  smooth  with  an  ivory  folder.  Breathe  on  the 
India  paper,  to  give  to  it  a slight  degree  of  moisture,  and  gently  press  the  inked  block  thereon ; 
to  which  it  will  at  once  adhere.  Next,  turn  the  block  face  upward,  and,  placing  over  the  India 
paper  a card,  or  slip  of  stout  paper,  proceed  by  gentle  friction  thereon  with  an  ivory  folder,  or  a 
flat  burnisher,  to  impress  the  engraving  upon  the  India  paper  \ carefully  guarding  against  injuring 
the  sharpness  of  the  cut  by  pressing  too  heavily,  and  regulating  the  degree  of  friction  by  the 
nature  of  the  work — the  darker  and  more  solid  parts  requiring  more,  the  fainter  and  those  in 
which  the  lines  are  more  widely  separated,  much  less. 

49.  For  working  by  lamp-light,  a glass  globe  filled  with  water  is  very  frequently  employed — 
upon  which  there  is  a recent  improvement  of  a hollow  glass  bull’s-eye  filled  with  water  and  set 
upon  a convenient  stand,  which  is  much  better  adapted  to  the  purpose,  not  only  of  the  engraver, 
but  to  all  who  are  compelled  to  make  use  of  lamp-light  in  their  work.  With  one  good  lamp  in 
the  centre  of  a table,  any  number  of  persons  that  could  find  place  around  it  may,  each  being  pro- 
vided with  one  of  these  bull’s-eyes,  be  as  well  accommodated  as  if  they  had  the  lamp  to  themselves. 
By  slightly  tinging  the  water  with  blue  vitriol,  a light  more  pleasant  and  less  trying  to  the  eyes 
may  be  produced.  After  all,  however,  we  would  advise,  not  only  wood-engravers,  but  all  others 
engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  art,  to  be  up  early  in  the  morning — to  make  the  most  of  daylight — and 
to  let  lamps  light  their  hours  of  rest  and  recreation  rather  than  those  of  study  or  labor. 


Modelling  is  the  art  of  imitating  forms,  or  of  giving  shape  to  ideal  creations,  in  plastic  and 
soft  materials,  such  as  clay,  wax,  plaster,  etc.  The  model  embodies  the  design,  and  its  perfection 
constitutes  the  chief  labor  of  the  artist’s  mind  and  hand,  and  forms  the  pattern , or  guide,  in  the 
more  mechanical  operations  by  which  statues,  reliefs,  etc.,  are  produced  in  marble,  bronze,  or 
other  harder  and  more  durable  materials. 


2S0 


MOD  E L L J N G. 


The  sculptor’s  art,  considered  in  a strict  sense,  would  seem  to  signify  the  actual  process  of 
carving  any  substance  into  a purposed  form,  and  it  is  as  common  to  speak  of  the  achievements  of 
his  chisel  as  of  a painter’s  pencil ; while,  in  truth,  the  entire  process  of  blocking  out,  or  of  casting 
and  chiselling  the  rough  material,  may  have  scarcely  occupied  more  labor  on  his  part  than  the 
general  supervision  and  direction  of  the  work.  To  be  capable,  however,  thus  to  make  successfully 
available  the  labor  of  others  in  the  perfection  of  a design,  involves  the  requirement  of  at  least 
capacity  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  a merely  mechanical  hand  by  that  of  an  artist’s,  whenever  it 
may  be  needed.  To  what  extent  the  sculptors  of  antiquity  may  have  bestowed  their  individual  labor 
upon  the  best  of  their  works  that  remain  to  us,  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  j but  it  is  very  certain  that 
they  bear  the  evidence  of  a hand  in  their  completion  beyond  the  capacity  of  that  of  a mere  work- 
man. It  is  this  that  gives  to  their  productions,  in  a great  degree,  their  superiority  over  copies  from 
them ; and  in  which  the  reason  is  discoverable,  that  a bronze  fac-simile,  as  far  as  relates  to  form, 
of  the  Venus  de  Medici,  or  a plaster-cast  from  the  Venus  de  Milo,  or  the  Apollo  Belvidere,  fails, 
in  producing  the  impression  of  beauty  and  perfection,  in  comparison  with  the  originals  — different 
materials  requiring  not  only  different  treatment  in  respect  to  texture,  etc.,  but  an  adaptation  of 
design  and  actual  form  to  their  peculiarities. 

2.  Excellence  in  all  branches  of  art  must  be  founded  in  knowledge,  both  practical  and  theo-  \ 
retical,  of  the  general  principles  of  design ; and  the  rules  and  maxims,  as  well  as  skill,  which  may 
be  requisite  in  one,  if  not  equally,  is  at  least  to  a very  great  extent  applicable  to  all.  Thus  the 
sculptor  who  can  not  draw  — who  does  not  comprehend  the  means  of  expression  — the  harmonious 
arrangement,  or  composition,  of  forms,  masses,  and  lines  — the  power  and  effect  of  light  and  shadow 
— is  as  deficient  in  the  requirements  of  his  art  as  the  painter  who  is  not  familiar  with  the  structure 
of  the  human  figure,  and  who  can  not  model.  Practical  efficiency  with  both  rests  in  assimilating 
capacity.  A drawing  or  picture,  to  approach  the  degree  of  truth  requisite  to  excellence,  should 
be  as  correctly  modelled , in  an  artistic  sense,  as  a plastic  model  should  be  correct  in  drawing. 

It  is  as  commonly  said,  and  as  clearly  understood,  with  reference  to  a statue,  that  it  is  well  or 
badly  drawn,  as  it  may  be  of  a picture  that  it  is  well  or  feebly  modelled.  The  most  eminent  sculp- 
tors, without  an  exception  that  we  can  call  to  mind,  have  all  been  accomplished  draughtsmen ; 
and  the  practice  of  modelling,  both  as  a means  of  study  and  as  assistance  in  the  execution  of  their 
finished  works,  has  been  always  common  among  painters. 

3.  It  is  an  error  most  injuriously  prevalent  to  consider  that  education  in  the  different  branches 
of  art  may  be  limited,  or  economized,  to  such  attainments  as  only  appear  most  obviously  requisite 


MODELLING. 


281 


to  individual  purposes  5 whereas,  the  strength  and  extent  of  human  capacity  of  attainment  should 
alone  prescribe  its  limits. 

Added  to  the  vastness  of  his  capacity  as  sculptor,  painter,  and  architect,  Michael  Angelo  was 
one  of  the  most  skilful  engineers,  both  military  and  civil,  of  his  time  — a poet  and  a philosopher. 
Scarcely  less  accomplished  was  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Both  ranked,  not  only  among  the  most  emi- 
nent anatomists  of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  but  by  their  investigations,  their  pens  and  pencils, 
most  effectively  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  that  important  science.  Raphael,  although  he 
lived  not  to  half  the  number  of  years  of  either,  attained  an  amount  of  knowledge  and  capacity  in 
all  relating  to  the  arts  of  design  which  appears  to  he  almost  incredible.  It  is  said  that  “ Titian 
and  Tintoretto,  by  the  mere  use  of  modelling,  far  surpassed  those  who  designed  statues.”  — u Cor- 
reggio disposed  of  the  masses  of  his  lights  and  shades  with  an  art  purely  natural  in  its  foundation, 
but  in  the  selection  and  effect  altogether  ideal.  And  he  arrived  at  this  degree  of  perfection  by 
the  very  same  path  pursued  by  Michael  Angelo,  availing  himself  of  models  in  clay  and  wax,  the 
remains  of  which  are  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  cupola  of  Parma,  not  many  years  ago.  It  is 
also  currently  reported  that,  while  employed  in  that  city,  he  engaged  the  assistance  of  the  famous 
modeller  Begarelli,  whom  he  conducted  thither  at  his  own  expense.”  — 

It  would  be  easy  to  fill  pages  with  instances  in  exemplification  of  the  importance  to  artists  of 
general  knowledge  on  all  subjects  in  any  way  connected  with  their  art  \ and  further,  that  the 
acquirement  of  such  knowledge  need  not  necessarily  interfere  with,  or  divert  the  steady  pursuit  of, 
leading  and  individual  purposes.  We  would  by  no  means  be  understood  as  encouraging  indecision 
of  purpose  or  action  in  the  course  of  study,  exertions,  or  ambition,  of  the  art-student  5 nor  would 
we  exact  of  him  labor  to  weariness,  or  to  the  peril  of  either  health  or  comfort.  Art  demands  no 
such  sacrifices  of  its  most  earnest  followers,  but  freely  and  abundantly  affords  time  and  opportunity 
for  that  rest  and  relaxation  essential  to  the  preservation  of  healthful  vigor  of  both  mind  and  body, 
without  the  necessity  of  arresting  or  deviating  from  a direct,  onward  course. 

Let  the  painter  seek  relaxation  in  his  labors  by  modelling,  and  the  sculptor  by  recourse  to  the 
pen  or  pencil.  Let  both  go  forth  together  to  the  bright  and  beautiful  out-door  world  of  Nature, 
breathe  her  free  air,  and  receive  strength  and  impulse,  delight  and  instruction,  from  the  refreshing 
influence  and  study  of  her  truths,  and  both  in  their  respective  pursuits  may  reap  equal  profit. 
The  limits  of  the  walls  of  a studio  should  no  more  prescribe  the  field  of  study  of  the  sculptor  than 
of  the  painter.  Canova  was  a painter  as  well  as  a sculptor.  We  have  seen  sketches  of  landscape 
by  Thorwaldsen,  made  on  the  way,  when  he  first  came  a student  to  Rome,  and  models  by  Allston, 
•and  drawings  by  Greenough,  which  would  do  equal  credit  to  a sculptor  in  the  one  case  as  to  a 
painter  in  the  other. 


36 


MODELLING. 


4.  Clay,  of  the  quality  and  prepared  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  generally  employed  by  pot- 
ters, is  the  material  most  commonly  approved  and  used  for  modelling.  When  it  can  not  be  con- 
veniently procured  of  a potter,  it  may  be  readily  prepared  by  wetting  it  with  water,  and  by  heating 
and  working  it  into  a proper  state  of  firmness.  Care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  free  from  stones, 
chips,  or  such  like  substances. 

Very  few  tools  are  requisite,  and  these  of  the  most  simple  character,  which  may  be  made  by 
the  artist  himself,  of  ivory  or  bone,  box,  pear-tree,  cedar,  or  any  close-grained  wood.  Tools 
formed  of  bent  wire,  set  into  handles,  are  useful  for  cutting  away  the  clay,  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  most  experienced  sculptors  employ  very  few  tools,  and  rely  much  upon  the  bare  fingers  in 
modelling. 


5.  Wax  offers  some  advantages  over  clay,  particularly  in  small  models,  and  for  amateur  pur- 
poses. From  its  extreme  lightness,  and  being  tougher  and  more  adhesive,  it  sustains  its  weight 
better,  and  does  not  require  the  same  attention,  when  the  work  is  laid  aside  or  suspended.  By 
practical  artists,  however,  clay  is  most  generally  preferred  and  employed. 

Clay  requires  to  be  kept  constantly  in  a proper  state  of  moisture,  especially  if  metal  or  other 
braces  have  been  found  necessary,  which,  by  their  not  yielding  to  the  contraction  and  expansion 
which  takes  place  in  the  clay,  if  not  kept  at  an  equal  degree  of  dampness,  causes  the  latter  to 
crack  and  often  fall  to  pieces.  The  requisite  degree  of  moisture  is  preserved  by  occasionally 
throwing  water  over  the  model  with  a syringe,  the  rose-head  of  which  is  perforated  with  very  fine 
holes,  something  like  that  of  a flower  watering-pot,  only  much  smaller  5 or  by  blowing  it  from  the 
mouth,  or  sprinkling  with  a large  brush  5 and  by  hanging  over  it  at  night,  or  when  the  work  is 
suspended,  wet  cloths. 

Models  in  which  no  other  material  than  clay  has  been  employed,  by  allowing  them  to  become 


MODELLING. 


28'J 


gradually  dry  and  hard,  may  be  preserved  in  that  state ; and  in  cases  where  the  masses  are  equally 
distributed  throughout,  or  have  been  hollowed  out  so  as  to  preserve  an  equal  degree  of  thickness 
therein,  they  may  be  afterward  baked,  in  the  same  manner  as  a piece  of  ordinary  pottery. 

6.  Terra-cotta,  the  name  given  to  works  in  clay  thus  treated,  is  a most  valuable  application 
of  design  to  practical  purposes,  and  may  be  made  as  well  a delightful  accomplishment,  well  suited 
to  the  exercise  of  the  taste  and  skill  of  both  amateurs  and  artists.  By  the  ancients  it  was  very 
extensively  employed,  not  only  in  small  subjects,  such  as  figures,  reliefs,  architectural  ornaments, 
vases,  lamps,  tiles,  and  domestic  utensils,  but  also  in  works  of  larger  proportions. 

Clay  is  further  capable  of  receiving  very  sharp  impressions  from  plaster  and  other  moulds* 
and,  from  the  durable  character  which  may  be  afterward  given  to  it  by  the  process  of  baking,  it 
may  be  rendered  for  many  purposes  scarcely  inferior  to  stone. 

7.  Figures  or  groups  entirely  insulated,  as  statues  usually  are,  are  technically  classed  as  works 
in  “ the  round.”  If  not  thus  detached  from  a background,  they  are  called  reliefs ) and  further 
distinguished,  according  to  the  degree  of  such  relief,  as  high,  medium, , and  low  relief  ( alto , mezzo , 
and  basso-relievo). 

8.  It  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  detailed  instructions  or  directions  with  regard  to  modelling,  as 
all  that  has  been  or  that  may  be  said  and  urged  in  relation  to  the  general  principles  of  design,  and 
their  practical  exemplification  in  reference  to  drawing  and  painting,  is  equally  applicable  thereto, 
with  such  modification  as^the  intelligence  of  the  artist,  the  material  employed,  and  the  object  to 
be  attained,  may  suggest.  The  artist  who  has  received  proper  training  of  mind  and  hand  in  the 
essential  requisitions  to  excellence  in  other  branches  — he  who  is  already  an  accomplished 
draughtsman,  or  painter — has  but  by  trial  to  become  very  soon  a successful  modeller. 

9.  The  sculptor  usually  begins  his  work  precisely  as  the  painter,  by  a sketch  — not  always  on 
paper,  but  in  clay  or  wax.  On  this  he  bestows  his  preliminary  study,  as  well  as  therein  embodies 
the  conception  of  his  subject  5 often  seeking,  during  its  progress,  suggestion  or  verification  of  his 
conclusions  by  reference  to  Nature  — imbues  his  imagination  with  a clear  perception  of  all  the 
prerequisites  of  the  finished  work,  and  as  well  decides  upon  the  possibility  and  means  of  their 
accomplishment.  Having  perfected  the  sketch,  so  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  determine  the  gen- 
eral character,  proportions,  and  effect  of  his  composition,  he  proceeds  to  build  up  the  statue,  in 
clay,  of  the  size  required. 


2S4 


MODELLING. 


10.  According  to  the  massiveness  of  the  figure  and  the  detached  position  of  its  parts,  and  as 
they  may  require  more  or  less  support  beyond  the  strength  and  nature  of  the  clay  to  supply,  skele- 
ton braces  of  iron  must  be  prepared,  suited  to  the  action  of  the  subject.  These  may  be  formed,  in 
most  cases,  upon  the  general  direction  and  character  of  the  natural  skeleton,  and  should  be  firmly 
bolted  or  fixed  to  the  modelling-stand.  Their  protrusion  beyond  the  surface  of  the  model  may 
sometimes  be  unavoidable,  but  care  should  be  always  taken  that  this  may  occur  at  unimportant 
points.  The  figure  is  then  gradually  developed  by  building  it  up  compactly  with  the  clay,  upon 
the  basis  of  generalized  masses,  and  progressively  advancing  to  detailed  elaboration. 

11.  It  is  almost  a universal  custom,  whether  the  figure  be  ultimately  draped  or  not,  first  to 
model  it  naked,  as  thus  that  severity  and  truth  of  form,  which  constitute  in  so  high  a degree  the 
excellence  of  sculpture,  may  be  insured.  Sculptors  generally  make  their  studies  from  wet  drapery, 
as  in  that  state  the  forms,  over  which  it  may  fall,  are  more  distinctly  marked,  and  its  effect  is 
considered  better  adapted  to  the  requisitions  and  capacities  of  their  art. 

12.  Reliefs  are  most  commonly  modelled  on  a ground  of  slate,  or  some  such  material,  to  which 
the  clay  may  adhere  with  sufficient  tenacity  to  render  braces  and  supports  rarely  necessary,  and 
which  may  not  be  injuriously  affected  by  the  dampness  to  which  it  is  subjected. 

For  small  reliefs  in  wax,  grounds  of  glass,  porcelain,  or  metal  plates,  wood,  etc.,  may  be  used. 
Wax  for  modelling  requires  very  little  preparation.  It  may  be  tempered,  according  to  the  season 
and  the  nature  of  the  work  in  which  it  is  to  be  employed,  by  adding  to  it,  while  in  a melted  state, 
small  portions  of  olive-oil,  tallow,  or  lard,  to  which  some  artists  add  Venice  turpentine  or  Canada 
balsam.  At  the  same  time  its  body  and  opacity  may  be  increased  by  the  addition  of  white  lead, 
vermilion,  or  any  other  finely-pulverized  pigment. 

The  annoyance  which  may  be  sometimes  experienced  in  using  wax,  by  its  adhesion  to  the 
fingers  and  tools,  may  be  guarded  against  by  touching  them  occasionally  upon  a cloth  or  sponge 
slightly  greased  with  oil.  A little  spirits  of  turpentine  occasionally  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
model  with  a brush,  may  at  times  be  found  serviceable.  The  tools  used  are  similar  to  those  for 
clay.  In  models  for  ornamental  purposes,  particularly  for  designs  of  a highly-elaborated  character, 
to  be  executed  in  metal,  wax  is  most  generally,  preferred,  as  it  admits  of  application  to  any  material 
to  which  it  adheres  very  firmly.  Thus  any  required  design  may  be  added  or  adapted  to  a given 
form  with  the  utmost  facility. 

T3.  To  form  a mould,  and  therein  a cast  in  plaster  from  a clay  or  other  model,  is  a process 
extremely  simple,  yet  one  requiring  so  much  caution  and  judgment,  as  well  as  practical  experience, 


MODELLING. 


285 


that  we  would  by  no  means  advise  the  experiment  of  a first  attempt  in  any  case  involving  peril  to 
the  result  of  much  pains  and  study,  urdess  the  services  of  a professed  moulder  can  not  be  ob- 
tained. The  operation  once  witnessed,  an  artist  will  find  little  difficulty  in  conducting  the  process 
himself  on  any  future  occasion  in  which  he  may  require  to  do  so. 

F urther  finish  of  the  model  may  be  often  advantageously  effected  in  the  plaster,  if  required. 
In  large  or  complicated  works,  this  may  be  not  only  a very  great  convenience,  but  in  many  cases 
absolutely  necessary.  Parts  and  details  of  statues  or  groups  in  plaster,  such  as  heads,  limbs,  etc., 
may  be  removed  from  their  places  and  wrought  upon  separately  under  some  circumstances  with 
greater  facility  than  in  the  position  they  occupy  in  the  composition,  to  which  they  may  he  refitted 
without  risk  or  difficulty,  by  means  of  bolted  or  other  joints.  The  entire  process  of  a model  is 
sometimes  conducted  with  plaster  alone. 

14.  Small  models,  particularly  reliefs,  may  be  very  successfully  reproduced  in  copper  by  the 
galvano-plastic  process,  and  by  the  same  means  they  may  be  very  effectively  gilt  or  silvered,  or 
perpetuated  in  gold  or  silver,  with  an  economy  in  time  and  expense  of  labor  and  material,  ren- 
dering its  application  of  the  utmost  value  in  many  of  the  ornamental  arts. 

15.  The  chasing  or  sinking  of  dies  for  medals  was  formerly  a long  and  laborious  process, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  the  electrotype  and  mechanical  improvements  in  the  turning-lathe,  has  been 
rendered  not  only  extremely  simple,  but  the  spirit  and  integrity  of  the  artist’s  design  are  preserved 
thereby  in  much  greater  perfection. 

From  an  electrotyped  duplicate, or  mould  in  copper,  of  the  original  model,  which  may  be  much 
larger  than  the  intended  medal,  another  is  made  of  cast-iron,  which  serves  as  the  guide  to  the 
peculiar  action  of  the  turning-lathe,  whereby  an  exact  copy  is  produced  in  soft  steel,  and  of  any 
desired  dimensions.  The  steel  die,  after  being  retouched  and  finished,  is  hardened  for  the  process 
of  striking  in  the  usual  manner. 

16.  Architectural  models  are  made  in  various  materials,  such  as  wood,  cork,  card-board,  plaster 
of  Paris,  etc.  Plaster  is  generally  preferred  for  those  in  which  the  repetition  of  much  elaborated 
detail  occurs.  By  it  mouldings,  columns,  and  other  ornaments,  as  well  as  more  massive  parts,  can 
be  formed,  both  by  casting  and  carving,  with  great  facility;  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  may  be- 
increased  by  the  addition  of  the  proper  colors,  either  combined  with  the  plaster  or  afterward 
applied.  Capacity  to  construct  or  to  direct  the  construction  of  an  architectural  model,  must  be, 
of  course,  possessed  with  that  for  its  design  and  actual  execution. 


ES6 


MODELLING. 


17.  The  importance  of  modelling,  not  only  as  a means  of  artistic  study  and  production,  but  in 
the  application  of  design  to  mechanical  and  other  purposes,  should  not  be  estimated  by  the  com- 
paratively limited  space  which  we  have  expressly  devoted  to  the  subject.  To  be  able  to  make  a 
.sketch,  or  even  an  elaborate  drawing  of  a design,  is  not  always  sufficient  either  to  mature  its 
invention,  to  adapt  it  to  a requirement,  or  to  test  the  accuracy  of  conclusions;  nor  always  to  afford 
data  sufficiently  reliable  and  intelligible  to  direct  with  certainty  the  executive  labor  of  others. 
Much  time  and  pains,  too  frequently  wasted  in  misdirected  experiment  and  vexatious  failures, 
might  be  well  saved  to  mechanics,  both  masters  and  workmen,  by  precisely  that  sort  of  preparatory 
study  and  clearly-expressed  decision  of  purpose  by  which  the  sculptor  insures  the  comparatively 
easy  and  successful  execution  of  his  design,  and  by  which  he  is  enabled  effectively  to  command 
the  skill  and  labor  of.  others. 

18.  Here  it  may  occur  — more  aptly  perhaps,  than  on  any  other  of  the  few  remaining  pages 
of  our  work — to  acquit  ourselves  of  having  supplied  aid  to  those  whose  requirements  in  design 
may  have  special  reference  to  the  industrial  arts,  to  an  extent  that  may  not  appear  to  those  who 
may  have  superficially  glanced  over  its.  chapters  with  the  expectation  of  finding  the  subject  sepa- 
rately treated.  Had  it  been  our  purpose  to  adapt  our  work  exclusively  to  the  requirements  of  the 
mechanic,  it  would  have  been  requisite  to  have  insisted  upon  a similar  course  of  training  in  the 
elementary  principles  of  design,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  to  have  exemplified  their  appli- 
cation in  the  finer  arts,  to  have  placed  him  in  possession  of  their  just  comprehension,  or  of  capacity 
to  adapt  them  effectively  to  his  purposes.  To  be  capable  of  availing  himself  of  the  assistance  of 
design,  the  mechanic  must  become  an  artist  to  the  extent  that  he  may  require  artistic  aid.  Both 
must  begin  to  learn  in  the  same  way,  and  both  must  pursue  a similar  course  of  elementary  train- 
ing ; from  which  they  can  only  safely  venture  to  diverge  when  they  have  reached  a period  of 
advancement  by  which  they  may  be  prepared  effectively  to  apply  their  knowledge  and  practical 
skill  to  their  individual  purposes.  The  intelligent  mechanic,  whose  mind  has  become  imbued  with 
artistic  feeling  and  impulse — whose  hand  has  been  trained  to  artistic  accuracy  of  expression  in 
design — and  whose  sensitiveness  to  the  harmonious  consistency  and  beauty  of  Nature  has  been 
awakened — will  no  more  need  a special  teacher  to  direct  him  in  the  application  of  the  laws  and 
precepts  hence  to  be  derived,  and  common  to  all  art,  than  the  painter  or  sculptor. 


OF  COMPOSITION— HINTS  ON  METHODS  OF  ORIGINAL  PRODUCTIONS,  ETC. 

CONCLUSION. 

"Every  man,  that  can  paint  at  all,  can  execute  individual  parts;  hut,  to  keep  those  parts  in  due  subordination, 
as  relative  to  a whole,  requires  a comprehensive  view  of  the  art,  that  more  strongly  implies  genius  than  perhaps 
any  other  quality  whatever." — Reynolds 

Every  work  of  art,  which  is  not  a copy  of  another,  may  claim  consideration  as  an  original  com- 
position, from  an  attempt  at  imitation  of  the  simplest  object  to  the  embodiment  of  the  ideal,  and 
ranks  in  estimation  in  proportion  as  the  inventive  faculties  are  more  or  less  elicited,  and  success- 
fully exerted,  not  only  in  realizing  its  design  so  far  as  to  render  it  intelligible  to  others,  but  also  in 
bringing  the  utmost  effort  of  genius,  and  power  of  art,  to  bear  upon  its  perfection.  In  the  consid- 
eration of  a picture,  or  of  any  work  of  art,  a motive,  or  subject,  is  implied ; and  clearly  to  express 
such  motive  should  be  the  leading  object  in  its  composition  or  arrangement. 

2.  It  might  appear  that  any  one  who  could  draw,  paint,  or  model,  having  a subject  before  him, 
or  a clear  impression  of  it  upon  his  mind,  would  have  nothing  more  to  do  than  to  copy  what  he 
sees,  or  to  express  that  which  he  imagines.  This  would  be  true,  if  Nature  and  the  imagination 
always  aptly  met  the  requirements  and  enforced  no  execution  of  art  beyond  its  capacity.  The 
power  of  art,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  limited  ; and,  to  preserve  its  congruity,  its  efforts  must  be 
necessarily  restrained  to  its  possibilities.  Genius  may  occasionally  strain  to  the  utmost  its  limits, 
in  violation  even  of  consistency,  and  find  allowable  excuse  and  apology  in  the  happy  results  of 
successful  daring;  but  the  privileges  which,  to  a certain  extent,  may  be  allowable  to  genius,  should 
be  assumed  with  timidity.  Those  only  can  safely  venture  who  are  fortified  with  that  strength  and 
readiness  in  the  expedients  of  art,  which  come  not  instinctively  and  coincident  with  the  gift  of 
genius,  but  as  results  of  its  earnest  seeking  and  acquirement. 


2SS 


COMPOSITION. 


3.  However  it  may  be  that  emulation  of  the  broad  and  general  impressions  of  Nature,  as  they 
most  forcibly  affect  the  mind  or  excite  the  imagination,  rather  than  the  abstract  and  material 
elements  which  combine  to  produce  such  effects,  form  the  higher  purposes  of  art  — as  the  means 
of  its  expression  are,  as  in  Nature,  by  combinations  of  subordinates,  a thorough  comprehension  of 
and  command  over  all  such  subordinates  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  the  artist  5 this  compre- 
hension and  command  extending,  not  only  to  theoretical  knowledge  of  their  natures,  and  power 
of  service  to  the  purposes  of  art,  but  likewise  to  a masterly  control  over  them  in  their  practical 
application. 

4.  In  the  composition  of  a work  of  design,  is  understood  to  comprise  its  entire  arrangement  5 
and  involves,  according  to  the  extent  of  its  intention,  whether  in  reference  to  desired  effect,  or 
method,  or  materials  employed,  its  general  outline — grouping  — effect  of  light  and  shadow — 
expression — color , etc.,  all  harmoniously  agreeing  together,  all  directly  bearing  upon  its  motive  or 
subject , and  combining  to  convey  an  effective  and  agreeable  as  well  as  obvious  impression  thereof. 

5.  The  first  requisite,  therefore,  of  a composition  is  that  it  should  tell  its  story.  It  matters 
not  how  exalted  or  how  insignificant  its  motive  may  be,  on  this  point  there  should  be  no  grounds 
for  doubt  or  question.  The  humblest  bit  of  still-life  that  may  be  selected  — a book  upon  the  table 
— a fruit,  or  flower  — a weed,  or  tree  — a rock,  or  mountain — a glass  of  water,  or  a lake  or  river  — 
a rippling  brook,  or  a foaming  cataract  — a head,  a limb,  or  a figure  — anything — singly  or  com- 
bined, whether  in  their  natural  arrangement,  or  artistically  composed  as  principals  or  subordinates 
in  ideal  creations  — may  be  motives  or  subjects  of  a composition,  so  long  as  they  preserve  primary 
importance  therein,  and  form  by  the  scale  of  their  significance  and  value  that  of  the  art  which 
may  attempt  their  representation.  The  feeblest  effort  of  a child  to  imitate  upon  his  slate  an  object 
which  he  sees,  remembers,  or  imagines,  and  the  most  sublime  and  successful  achievements  of 
cultivated  genius,  differ  only  in  ambition  of  attempt  and  amount  of  capacity  exercised. 

6.  What  story,  it  may  be  asked,  has  a bit  of  still-life,  a portrait,  or  a landscape-view,  to  tell 
beyond  that  which  it  brings  with  its  presence  to  the  artist  ? What  composition  or  further  arrange- 
ment is  required  ? Do  not  the  subjects  themselves  afford  all  the  composition  ready  to  his  hand  ? 
What  else  is  there  for  him  to  do  than  faithfully  to  imitate  that  which  is  before  him  ? 

Let  us  take  the  table  before  us,  in  its  confusion  of  books  and  drawings,  papers,  pens,  and  com- 
monplace conveniences,  of  an  artist’s  studio.  Not  a very  promising  or  interesting  subject  for  a 
picture,  it  must  be  admitted ; but  for  a tempting  basket  of  freshly-gathered  boughs  of  fruit,  which 


COMPOSITION. 


2S9 


have  been  brought  in  to  serve  as  studies  for  the  accessories  of  a picture  on  our  easel.  To  draw- 
er paint  it  precisely  as  it  is,  a motive  might  be  sustained  in  that  of  an  exhibition  of  the  confusion 
and  anomalous  character  of  an  artist’s  table,  but  even  that  would  be  done  at  the  sacrifice  of  many 
important  requisites  in  a picture.  By  selection  and  arrangement — by  composition  of  its  contents, 
as  a whole,  or  into  groups  and  subjects  — by  giving  to  almost  every  object,  in  its  turn,  a prominent 
position  — by  exhausting  the  power  of  art  in  fidelity  of  imitation  of  that  which  may  be  in  itself 
insignificant,  and  thereby  elevating  it  to  the  consideration  of  a subject  for  a picture  — the  range  of 
service  to  which  this  confused  assemblage  of  objects  might  be  appropriated,  as  leading  motives,  or 
as  accessories  to  pictures,  may  surprise  the  learner  to  his  profit  by  practical  experiment,  and 
exemplify  many  important  principles,  as  wrell  as  expedients  available  in  art. 

7.  It  is  not  alone  in  subjects  of  an  elevated  character  that  the  exercise  of  genius  and  artistic 
skill  is  most  requisite.  In  all  there  is  the  requirement  of  not  only  an  appropriate  but  pleasing  and 
effective  arrangement,  or  composition,  based  upon  similar  principles.  It  is  the  want  of  this  w hich 
makes  the  difference  between  a carefully -studied  work  by  an  accomplished  artist  and  the  tame  and 
unmasterly  attempt  at  mere  imitation  of  the  uneducated.  It  is  this  that  may  give  to  the  most 
insignificant  subject  by  the  one  an  excellence  by  which  it  is  received  and  valued,  while  the  more 
ambitious  effort  of  the  other  may  not  only  signally  fail  in  producing  a favorable  impression,  but 
often  degrade  the  motive  itself  to  the  ridiculous.  Thus  have  the  Flemish,  and  artists  of  other 
schools,  in  their  subjects  from  scenes  of  the  lowest  life,  not  unfrequently  of  themselves  of  a repul- 
sive and  even  disgusting  character,  by  the  power  of  their  art  diffused  a charm  over  their  composi- 
tions, not  only  to  win  the  admiration  of  the  most  fastidious,  but  to  give  to  their  productions,  as 
works  of  art,  rank  with  those  of  more  refined  taste  and  higher  motive. 

8.  Few  subjects  bring  with  them  at  once  to  the  portrait-painter’s  chair  all  that  may  be  required 
for  faithful  resemblance.  Those  who  have  practised  this  branch  of  art  know  this  full  well.  Char- 
acteristics of  action  and  expression  require,  in  almost  all  cases,  to  be  elicited  by  study  of  the  origi- 
nal— to  be  caught,  as  it  w7ere,  in  momentary  transitions  — and,  by  a happy  arrangement,  or  compo- 
sition of  the  picture,  to  express  such  characteristeric  traits  in  a manner  that  the  portrait  shall  be 
more  than  a mere  representation  of  the  individual  features  of  the  original. 

9.  A landscape-view7  may  be  strikingly  effective  in  nature,  and  in  its  details  as  well  as  general 

characteristics  afford  ample  materials  for  its  representation  ; but,  to  bring  the  resources  of  art  to 

bear  practically  and  efficiently,  more  is  required  than  close  imitation.  He  who  attempts  to  pro- 

37 


290 


COMPOSITION. 


duce  in  a picture,  by  minute  and  servile  imitation  of  details,  the  broad  and  emphatic  impressions 
of  Nature,  will  as  assuredly  fail  as  he  who  essays  to  reach  the  higher  excellency  without  due  regard 
to  the  means  by  which  she  expresses  herself.  However  these  means  may  not  be  obtrusively  evi 
dent  to  the  common  observer — as  they  should  not  be  in  a work  of  art — yet,  if  sought  for,  they 
may  be  found  in  the  one  as  they  should  be  in  the  other — all  in  just  subordination,  according  to 
their  importance  as  primary  or  secondary  in  the  consideration  of  the  motive  or  subject  of  the 
picture.  There  is  no  branch  of  art  in  which  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment  and  skill  in  compo- 
sition may  be  more  happily  exemplified  than  in  landscape.  Thereby  the  landscape-painter  is  ena- 
bled to  elevate  his  art  to  a merited  rank  far  above  that  of  mere  portraiture,  and  to  bring  success- 
fully the  ideal  within  its  compass.  Thus  may  he  indulge  his  imagination  in  allowable  combinations 
of  the  actual  in  Nature,  and  collect  the  diffusion  of  beauty  which  prevails  throughout  her  works,  in 
imaginary  pictures  possessing  all  the  truth  and  consistency  of  reality.  Thus  may  he,  even  in  his 
representations  of  actual  scenes,  exercise  allowable  license  in  the  arrangement  of  accessories  and 
effects;  and,  by  adding  to  the  reality  that  which  might  consistently  exist,  or  by  the  omission  of  that 
which  may  be  unnecessary  or  prejudicial  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  whole,  or  to  individual  and  im- 
portant features,  not  only  give  more  forcible  and  agreeable  expression  to  his  picture,  but  at  the 
same  time  sufficiently  preserve  its  general  characteristics  to  retain  its  resemblance,  and  even  to 
add  to  such  resemblance  an  impressiveness  beyond  that  of  the  original  subject  to  an  ordinary 
observer. 

11.  To  bring  the  expressive  power  of  Nature  within  the  availabilities  of  art,  its  resources  must  be 
rightly  understood  and  employed,  its  inefficiencies  assisted,  and  its  utmost  strength  elicited.  These 
should  be  considered  important  and  leading  objects  in  composition.  All  the  expedients  which  may 
be  allowable  in  portraiture  in  one  respect  may  be  equally  so  in  another;  and  violations  of  pro- 
priety, and  truth  of  resemblance,  affect  all  cases  with  comparatively  injurious  consequences  as  they 
more  or  less  affect  the  broad  and  general  impressions  of  Nature.  The  artist,  therefore,  should  be 
ever  mindful  that  the  great  object  of  art  is  to  convey  such  impressions,  with  all  the  force  and  ex- 
pression of  which  it  is  capable;  for,  by  them,  as  well  in  the  presence  of  Nature  as  in  the  memory 
and  recognition  of  her  truths,  art  is  received  and  estimated,  not  only  in  reference  to  portraiture  of 
existing  objects,  but  also  with  regard  to  ideal  creations.  Ideal  efforts  are  but  the  application  of 
portraiture  to  imaginary  models,  or  impressions,  existing  in  the  artist’s  mind ; which  must  be  based 
upon  familiarity  with  the  realities  and  truths  of  Nature,  and  brought  as  palpably  within  the  com- 
pass of  his  art  as  if  they  were  before  him,  ever  to  be  realized,  or  to  be  made  intelligible  to  others 
by  its  means. 


COMPOSITION. 


201 


11.  AH  striking  effects  and  picturesque  combinations  in  Nature  are  distinctly  marked  by  that 
which  artists  designate  composition  — whether  of  form  — Light  and  shadow — color  or  expression 
— or  of  all  together.  As  relates  to  the  form,  or  general  arrangement  of  such  compositions,  the  im- 
pression on  the  mind  is  very  apt  to  assume  some  conventional  shape,  by  which  they  are  technically 
designated  and  recognised.  Hence  the  terms  circular  — angular — diagonal  — horizontal , etc., 
as  applied  to  compositions.  To  insist,  however,  that  the  excellence  of  a composition  requires  the 
adoption  of  one  or  of  the  other  of  these  shapes,  would  be  as  absurd  as  to  contend  for  the  superiority 
of  either  class,  or  to  argue  for  its  unconditional  acceptation  as  a general  rule. 

12.  A range  of  hills  encircling  a lake  or  plain  — a sweep  of  seashore — a group  or  groups  of 
figures — or  a multitude  assembled  around  a central  point  of  interest  or  action  — and  in  many  other 
analogous  cases — the  natural  arrangement  may  be  obviously  associated  with  the  circle.  Such 
being  the  impression  upon  the  mind  of  a scene  in  Nature,  by  which  its  general  features  would  be 
marked  and  retained  upon  the  memory,  and  by  which  the  fidelity  of  its  representation  by  art 
would  be  received  and  judged,  it  is  important  that  the  artist  should  not  only  conform  thereto  in  its 
portraiture,  but  even  if  necessary  emphasize  such  characteristics j at  the  same  time  guarding 
against  affectation  or  ostentation  of  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected. 

Equally  obvious  may  be  the  association  of  other  forms  of  composition  with  actual  scenes  or 
events,  and  with  equal  propriety  their  representations  should  not  only  be  marked  by  such  peculi- 
arities, but  the  truthfulness  of  ideal  creations  requires  the  preservation  of  like  consistency. 

13.  The  peculiar  shape  of  a picture,  and  its  adaptation  to  a given  place  or  purpose,  may  have 
a very  important  influence  on  its  composition  ; w hile,  on  the  other  hand,  the  character  of  the 
subject  may  as  well  regulate  the  form  of  the  picture.  Too  little  consideration  is  commonly  be- 
stowed upon  this  point.  Thus  does  it  occur  that  we  often  see  strips  of  landscape  oppressed  with 
unnecessary  and  unmeaning  expanses  of  sky,  while  the  eye  is  refused  relief  by  an  agreeable  extent 
of  horizon.  Groups  and  other  objects  are  frequently  cut  off  by  the  frame  in  a manner  to  produce 
the  most  unsatisfactory  impression  $ while  the  corners,  especially  of  circular  compositions,  are  often 
as  painfully  in  the  way  of  the  observer  as  they  have  evidently  proved  embarrassing  to  the  artist. 
Equally  inharmonious  may  be  the  effect  of  angular  compositions  in  works  of  a circular  or  elliptical 
form.  The  shape  and  composition  of  a picture  should  as  far  as  possible  harmonize,  not  contrast 
with,  one  another,  and  the  selection  of  both  should  be  consistent  with  the  subject. 

14.  It  is  much  easier  to  discover  upon  what  general  principles  of  composition  a work  of  art  may 
have  been  perfected — whether  they  relate  to  its  general  arrangement,  or  its  peculiar  effects  of 


■292 


C O M P 0 S I T 1 0 N. 


light  and  shadow,  or  of  color — than  to  predicate  thereon  a rule  or  recipe  by  which  another  may 
be  done  as  well.  Many  of  the  best  productions  of  both  ancient  and  modern  masters  admit  of  very 
allowable  classification,  yet  others  seem  to  set  at  defiance  all  attempts  to  do  so  under  any  technical 
head.  In  some,  the  keenest  academic  and  critical  acumen  is  often  at  fault  in  endeavoring  to 
investigate  and  discover  the  secret  of  their  successful  execution,  and  to  reduce  it  to  rules  or  maxim. 
Thus,  in  attempting  to  establish  the  premises  of  the  circle  for  a composition,  the  pyramid  may  be 
developed,  which  may  lead  to  the  diagonal , and  so  on,  until  we  find  ourselves  involved  in  a laby- 
rinth of  difficulty  from  which  vve  may  be  glad  to  escape,  by  closing  our  books  and  theories,  and 
admitting  the  independence  of  genius  of  all  such  arbitrary  laws.  In  granting  this  admission  to 
genius,  however,  the  possession  of  qualifications  to  reach  its  aims,  by  means  which  it  can  alone 
derive  from  cultivation,  is  implied,  and  without  which  its  noblest  impulses  supply  but  in  a very 
limited  degree  the  requisitions  for  successful  achievement. 

15.  The  elementary  character  of  our  work,  and  the  means  of  exemplification  at  our  disposal, 
preclude  the  possibility  of  treating  the  subject  of  composition  in  design  with  sufficiently  plausible 
hope  of  rendering  thereby  practical  aid  to  the  learner  to  warrant  the  attempt.  A volume  would 
at  least  be  requisite  for  the  discussion  of  the  subject,  and  numerous  and  varied  illustrations,  not 
only  in  reference  to  forms  and  outlines,  but  also  examples  of  delicate  gradations  and  effects  of  light 
and  shadow  and  of  color.  And,  after  all,  it  may  be  well  questioned,  could  we  do  justice  to  the 
reproduction  of  the  standard  works  by  eminent  masters  of  the  past  and  present,  which  vve  should 
select — if  more  real  service,  in  a practical  point  of  view,  might  not  be  rendered  by  placing  them 
before  the  art-student,  and  by  leaving  their  investigation  and  study  to  his  own  intelligence,  than 
by  endeavoring  to  deduce  therefrom  rules  and  precepts,  which,  as  arbitrary  rules  and  precepts, 
may  be  w7ell  doubted  to  have  had  much  if  any  direct  influence  in  the  execution  of  the  very  exam- 
ples upon  which  they  might  be,  however  ingeniously  and  plausibly,  predicated. 

16.  To  the  study  of  standard  works  of  art,  based  upon  that  faith  in  their  excellence  with  which 
they  should  be  regarded  by  the  student,  he  may  most  confidently  look  for  available  sources  of 
knowledge,  not  only  of  its  ways  and  means,  but  of  its  consistency  and  practical  application  to 
Nature,  and  as  well  of  Nature  to  art.  It  is  from  their  study  that  he  must  learn  to  estimate  their 
merits  and  defects,  and,  justly  balancing  both  with  an  enlightened  and  unbiased  judgment,  to 
reduce  his  investigations  to  safe  and  reliable  precepts  and  maxims  suited  to  his  individual  require- 
ments. Such  will  profit  him  far  more  than  any  to  be  obtained  in  books. 

We  would  not,  by  any  means,  be  understood  as  insinuating  that  much  valuable  assistance  in 


COMPOSITION. 


293 


such  study  may  not  be  derived  from  books,  especially  those  of  a practical  rather  than  a merely 
critical  character.  However  it  may  be  regretted  that  so  few  comparatively  of  the  great  masters 
of  art  have  left  written  records  of  their  experience,  and  with  especial  reference  to  the  practical 
methods  and  principles  by  which  they  were  governed,  quite  enough  has  been  done  by  them  in 
this  respect  to  leave  little  now  to  be  said  upon  the  subject  — quite  enough  to  convince  us  that 
there  are  no  secrets  to  be  discovered  worth  the  trouble  of  searching  for — that  the  way  to  excel- 
lence is  plain,  and  open,  and  free,  to  all  — and  that  success  is  as  surely  the  reward  of  earnest 
industry  and  faithful  seeking — now  — as  it  has  been  always. 

The  art-student  at  every  period  of  advancement  — and  all  artists  are  and  should  be  students, 
both  of  Nature  and  of  the  works  of  others  — can  not  be  too  strongly  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  self-exertion,  and  of  the  baneful  influence  of  too  great  reliance  on  either  books  or  teachers. 
From  this  error  may  be  traced  too  frequently  the  enervation  of  the  strength  of  the  most  vigorous, 
while  it  may  have  an  equal  tendency  to  deter  the  timid  from  attempt.  Thus  many  fertile  minds, 
naturally  endowed  with  pre-eminent  capacity  for  artistic  achievement,  have  been,  by  unwholesome 
restraint,  or  misdirected  guidance,  diverted  from  a course  consistent  with  their  individual  impulses 
and  qualifications,  which,  if  pursued  aright,  might  have  attained  to  the  perfection  of  one  of  the 
highest  privileges,  purest  enjoyments,  and  most  productive  capacities  of  good  to  mankind,  as  well 
as  to  the  possessor,  that  Providence  has  placed  within  the  reach  of  human  attainment. 

One  of  the  leading  purposes  of  education  in  art  should  ever  be  to  preserve  the  natural  impulses 
and  energies  unimpaired,  and  to  adapt  instruction  to  their  natures ; to  foster  a sensibility  and  just 
appreciation  of  wants  and  imperfections ; to  train  the  mind  to  proper  judgment  in  the  application 
of  correctives,  and  to  the  appropriation  of  the  experience  and  knowledge  of  others  to  its  profit. 
Thus  may  the  learner  become  even  from  the  beginning  capable,  to  a very  great  extent,  of  self- 
direction.  To  say  that  one  is,  or  may  be,  self-taught,  means  no  more  than  this ; and  it  is  in  such 
a sense  that  nearly  every  artist,  who  has  ever  attained  to  eminence,  may  be  said  to  have  been  self- 
taught:  for  all  the  instruction  that  can  be  given,  all  the  aid  that  can  be  derived  from  Nature,  or 
from  others,  unless  it  pass  through  the  mould  of  a well-ordered  mind,  and  become  stamped  with  its 
individuality,  will  otherwise  avail  but  little. 

17.  It  may  be  not  only  interesting  but  profitable,  to  the  learner,  to  know  more  of  the  methods 
and  expedients  most  usually  employed  by  artists  in  the  execution  of  original  compositions  than  we 
have  hitherto  had  the  opportunity  of  presenting. 

The  idea,  or  motive,  of  an  original  work,  may  be  often  founded  upon  a slight  sketch,  dashed 
off  perhaps  at  the  moment  of  its  first  impression  on  the  mind  of  the  artist,  and  embodied  by  a few 


294 


COMPOSITION. 


apparently  random  lines,  made  with  pen  or  pencil,  chalk  or  charcoal,  or  anything  of  the  kind  within 
his  reach,  or  by  a plastic  model.  Possibly  it  may  be  expressed  in  color,  as  frequently  occurs  when 
some  striking  effect  is  connected  with  its  suggestion. 

It  would  be  difficult,  in  many  cases,  to  trace  a first  impulse  or  conception  to  its  source  5 for,  at 
times,  to  a fertile  imagination,  they  would  seem  to  come  spontaneously,  or  to  be  so  slightly  affected 
by  extraneous  causes,  that  the  artist  himself  may  be  scarcely  sensible  of  their  influence.  Such  im- 
pressions must  be  necessarily  indefinite,  broad,  and  general  in  character.  The  sketch,  perhaps, 
may  even  embody  all  that  exists  of  them  at  the  moment.  In  pictorial  or  in  plastic  subjects,  con- 
nected with  historical  incidents,  or  with  the  ideal  creations  of  other  minds,  the  first  suggestion  may 
come  in  a more  definite  shape  to  the  artist’s  imagination.  That  it  there  receives  a remodelling, 
an  individuality  of  character,  and  becomes  as  identical  as  an  original  thought,  to  a very  great 
extent,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that,  if  any  number  of  artists  were  to  attempt  the  illustration  of  a 
given  subject,  they  would  all  be  different.  Their  similarity  would  be  greater  or  less  according  to 
the  facts  and  details  by  which  they  were  restrained.  Thus  it  frequently  occurs  that  such  facts  and 
details,  whether  historically  associated  with  the  subject,  or  the  inventions  of  another,  may  be  most 
perplexingiy  in  the  way  of  an  artist  in  the  adaptation  of  his  art  to  their  exactions.  That  which 
may  be  most  effectively  expressed  by  language  does  not  always  afford  suitable  subject  for  art,  and 
the  best  subjects  for  illustration  are  those  which  leave  a fair  and  unembarrassed  field  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  artist’s  skill. 

18.  It  is  not  always  essential  that  the  first  impression  of  a subject  of  the  mind  should  be  embod- 
ied by  a sketch  : if  it  be  there  sufficiently  defined  to  form  a reliable  starting-point,  it  may  be  enough. 
A sketch  is  but  the  material  evidence  of  its  existence,  which,  however  faint,  imperfect,  or  unintel- 
ligible to  others,  may  possess  a clearness  and  impressiveness  to  its  author,  rendering  it  to  him  at 
least  invaluable.  Such  memoranda,  therefore,  however  indefinite  and  rude  they  may  be,  should 
never  be  destroyed  5 and  no  thought  or  impression,  whether  original  or  suggested,  that  can  be  thus 
preserved,  should  ever  be  allowed  to  escape  unregistered.  For  want  of  this  habit  of  appropriation 
of  its  fruitfulness,  many  a mind  naturally  fertile  has  become  early  and  profitlessly  barren,  while 
others  of  far  less  promise  have  been  made  thereby  abundantly  productive.  In  the  more  mechani- 
cal operations  by  which  an  original  sketch  may  be  carried  out,  and  by  which  its  motive  may  be 
rendered  more  intelligible  to  others,  as  well  as  in  the  severer  ordeal  to  which  it  is  necessarily 
subjected  to  meet  the  requirements  of  artistic  accuracy,  it  is  often  extremely  difficult  to  retain  its 
spirit,  or  realize  its  suggestive  promise.  Hence  it  will  be  always  found  serviceable,  in  the  progress 
of  the  work,  to  possess  the  advantage  of  recourse  to  it — thus  leading  us  back,  as  it  were,  to  our 


COMPOSITION. 


295 


starting-point,  and  profitably  reviving  its  broad  and  vivid  impressions,  the  impulsive  tendency  of 
which  it  is  always  of  the  first  importance  to  preserve. 

19.  The  dash  and  decision  of  execution  which  so  frequently  attracts  our  admiration  in  works 
of  art,  in  which  the  will  and  the  way  of  their  accomplishment  appear  as  a single  impulse,  are  often 
more  the  result  of  preparatory  study  and  forethought  than  is  generally  suspected.  If  a first  sketch 
should  not  prove  satisfactory,  it  is  better  to  attempt  another  than  to  destroy  it.  If  alterations,  or 
a test  of  certain  changes,  may  be  suggested,  or  appear  requisite,  instead  of  making  the  experiment 
upon  the  original  sketch  in  a manner  that  may  irrecoverably  affect  its  general  character,  such  a 
course  is  always  most  advisable.  The  effect  of  alterations  in  pictures  may  be  very  readily  tested 
in  most  cases  on  panes  of  glass  suspended  by  threads,  or  otherwise,  over  the  part  upon  which  it  may 
be  desirable  to  experiment.  In  drawings,  in  like  manner,  transparent  paper  may  be  very  success- 
fully employed  5 and  when  the  expediency  of  corrections  or  alterations  is  decided  upon,  the  whole 
may  be  recombined  by  tracing.  Recourse  to  such  expedients  is  much  better  than  attempting 
changes  and  erasures,  until  we  are  satisfied  of  our  ability  to  supply  preferable  combinations.  Thus 
leaving  the  way  to  excellence  weli  marked  and  open,  as  much  by  records  of  difficulties  encoun- 
tered as  the  operations  by  which  they  have  been  successfully  met  and  overcome,  we  learn  to  know 
it  better,  to  pursue  it  with  surer  steps,  and  reach  its  aim  more  certainly. 

20.  Upon  the  basis  of  a sketch  or  generalized  indication  of  the  subject  of  a composition,  it  is 
the  custom  of  some  painters  to  dispose  its  arrangement  upon  the  canvass  with  chalk  or  charcoal. 
In  doing  this,  all  its  parts  and  details  are  thoroughly  studied,  securing  their  premises  when  neces- 
sary by  reference  to  Nature.  Directly  thereon,  or  upon  such  under-preparation  as  they  may 
consider  requisite,  they  proceed  to  paint  at  once  from  living  and  still-life  models,  cautiously  observ- 
ing to  preserve  throughout  the  general  propriety  and  unity  of  light  and  shade,  of  color,  perspective, 
and  effect. 

Others,  instead  of  painting  on  their  pictures  directly  from  models,  adopt  the  course  of  making 
preparatory  studies  of  those  parts  in  which  they  may  require  the  immediate  assistance  of  the 
model,  even  to  draperies,  still-life,  and  the  minutest  details.  Thus  fortified — with  all  their  re- 
sources, as  it  were,  spread  out  before  them  — they  set  to  work  in  a more  deliberate  and  systematic 
manner.  The  results  of  this  course,  however  more  business-like  it  may  appear,  are  often  deficient 
in  that  freshness  which  the  immediate  presence  and  more  direct  translation  of  Nature  impart; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  less  risk  is  encountered  of  the  individuality  of  the  model  becoming  obtru- 
sively predominant,  and  prejudicial  to  the  general  harmony  of  the  picture.  Not  that  it  should  be 


296 


COMPOSITION. 


implied  that  there  is  a possibility  of  over-doing  the  truthfulness  of  our  representations  of  Nature; 
but  that  we  should  endeavor  to  preserve  that  truthfulness,  in  all  its  integrity,  by  representing  Nature 
as  it  really  would  appear,  affected  by  the  peculiar  influences  of  its  position  in  our  composition, 
rather  than  if  viewed  abstractly,  as  necessarily  may  be  the  case  when  employed  as  a model. 

21.  It  is  rarely  that  all  the  parts  of  a composition  can  be  copied  directly  from  models;  hence 
discrepancies  between  those  in  which  we  have  been  thus  assisted,  and  those  supplied  by  memory 
or  general  observation,  will  constantly  occur : to  guard  against  which,  the  acquirement  of  facility 
of  management,  and  right  appreciation  of  the  services  of  the  model,  are  of  great  importance,  and 
only  to  be  obtained  by  expanding  our  comprehension  of  the  broad  and  general  characteristics  of 
Nature,  by  investigating  study,  and  thus  learning  the  true  value  of  her  abstract  peculiarities,  as 
consistent  and  accessory  thereto. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  determine  wherein  lies  the  inconsistency,  when  we  hear  artists  complain 
that  “Nature  puts  them  out.”  It  can  only  be  so  when  our  requirements  of  her  exceed  the  limits 
of  propriety.  He  who  looks  to  Nature  as  he  ought,  and  seeks  no  more  of  her  than  her  truths, 
will  rarely  encounter  such  embarrassment,  or  meet  with  difficulty  in  finding  models  fully  answer- 
ing to  every  requirement.  If  he  can  not  have  the  individual  thing  itself,  he  can  always  find  some- 
thing analogous  in  its  general  character  to  serve  his  purpose.  It  is  this  faculty  of  appropriation 
of  the  vast  resources  of  Nature,  and  of  making  them  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  art,  that  con- 
stitutes the  strength  of  the  educated  artist.  lie  sees,  with  expansive  vision,  beauty  and  good  in 
everything,  and,  rejoicing  in  his  high  privilege,  goes  with  confidence  to  Nature  for  all  his  wants  ; 
and  no  one  who  has  thus  learned  to  love  and  reverence  her  as  gratefully  and  truly  as  he  values 
her  precepts — who  exacts  of  her  no  impossibilities,  nor  endeavors  to  force  her  to  unwarrantable 
subjection  — can  ever  be  “put  out  by  Nature.” 

22.  In  the  earnest  employment  of  conveying  back  and  forth,  between  the  model  and  our  com- 
position, abstract  observations,  comparisons,  and  conclusions,  the  eye  is  apt  to  lose,  in  some  degree, 
its  sensitiveness  to  broad  and  general  impressions ; to  preserve  which,  may  often  require  the  exer- 
cise of  much  firmness  of  judgment,  as  well  as  of  practical  skill.  This  difficulty  and  misleading 
tendency  will  be  found  more  generally  to  occur  with  those  most  eager  in  the  attainment  of  minute 
accuracy  of  representation ; and  hence  their  works,  however  perfect  they  may  be  in  detail,  not 
unfrequently  fail  to  produce  agreeable  impressions  as  a whole.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  secure 
the  broadest  and  most  prominent  masses  of  a composition  first,  as  they  may  relate  to  either  form, 
light  and  shadow,  or  color.  Thus  we  become  fortified  by  familiarity  with  the  leading  character- 


COMPOSITION. 


29? 


istics,  their  bearing  and  influence  on  the  general  effect  of  our  composition,  and  are  less  liable  to 
allow  undue  preponderance  to  subordinate  parts  and  details.  When  we  draw,  or  paint,  or  model 
a feature,  we  should  not  forget  that  it  is  the  component  part  of  a head  — a head,  that  it  should  in 
all  respects  accord  with  the  figure  — a figure  with  its  group  — the  group  with  the  leading  motive 
of  our  composition — the  whole  with  Nature.  Not  Nature  brought  in,  as  it  were,  in  loose,  dis- 
cordant fragments,  and  promiscuously  combined  together,  but  Nature  in  all  the  harmonious  beauty 
in  which  she  yields  herself  with  gentle  and  confiding  grace  to  the  imitative  power  of  art. 

23.  There  is  a fascination  in  the  presence  of  Nature — a something  so  winning  in  the  exercise 
of  the  power  of  conveying  her  impressions,  fresh  and  glowing  with  reality,  to  our  creations,  and 
the  comparative  ease  with  which  certain  individual  characteristics  can  be  imitated  — that  we  are 
often  led  thereby  to  give  undue  preponderance  to  the  subordinate  portions  of  a composition.  We 
forget,  in  our  anxiety  to  secure  all  that  we  can  of  individual  excellencies,  that  we  may  be  losing 
the  more  important;  and  it  is  only  when  the  model  is  no  longer  before  us,  but  with  its  general 
impression  still  fresh  upon  the  memory,  that  our  error  may  be  discovered.  Hence  it  occurs,  even 
with  the  most  experienced,  that  the  best  service  of  the  model  is  often  secured  in  the  hour  devoted 
to  u setting  to  rights”  after  its  employment.  It  is  then  that  the  artist  becomes  more  completely 
master  of  himself  and  of  his  resources,  and,  as  it  were,  enters  more  really  into  the  presence  of  his 
subject. 

24.  Such  misleading  tendencies  are  discoverable  in  a very  marked  manner  in  the  first  attempts 
of  all  beginners,  to  either  draw,  paint,  or  model  directly  from  Nature,  and  especially  remarkable 
in  reference  to  the  exercise  of  proper  judgment  of  color  and  local  tints.  They  almost  invariably 
exaggerate  the  reality,  and  fail  in  giving  due  consideration  to  the  various  circumstances  of  light 
and  shadow,  distance,  etc.,  by  which  subordinate  parts  of  a composition  may  be  affected.  Even  in 
a simple  head,  they  paint  the  white  of  the  eyes  too  white,  the  lips  too  red,  as  they  do  the  sky  too 
blue  and  trees  too  green  in  landscape,  and  it  may  he  often  difficult  lo  reason  them  from  their 
premises.  Let  them  compare  a well-painted  head  with  the  original  model.  The  tints  upon  the 
cheek  and  lower  portions  of  the  face  are  as  purely  flesh-like,  however  subdued  and  broken  by  half- 
shade and  reflections,  as  those  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  light  upon  the  forehead.  Is  there  any 
palpable  white  in  the  eye  ? If  there  were,  there  would  he  no  power  of  the  palette  left  to  approach 
that  single  touch  by  which  its  liquid  brilliancy  can  only  be  imitated.  Is  the  whole  feature  less 
.lifelike  and  real,  from  the  subdued  and  delicate  half-tints  and  shadows  which  play  around  it,  gently 

reducing  the  strength  of  its  local  tints,  softening  its  outlines,  and  concentrating  the  utmost  power 

38 


298 


COMPOSITION. 


of  light  and  dark  in  emphasized  contrast  at  a point?  No  power  of  the  palette  can  reach  the  ex 
pression  of  the  intensity  of  light  and  dark  of  a living  eye ; and,  little  as  there  is  of  either,  therein 
may  be  found  the  cause  of  its  wonderful  expressiveness,  as  well  as  the  means  by  which  it  may  be 
most  nearly  imitated.  In  the  lips  there  are  delicate  combinations  and  gradations  of  color,  as  unat- 
tainable by  white  and  red  alone,  as  the  varied  tints  of  the  heavens  with  white  and  blue.  It  is  poor 
reasoning,  because  leaves  are  green,  that  we  have  only  to  mix  our  tints,  as  nearly  as  we  can,  to 
match  those  of  one  before  us,  to  paint  the  tree.  Observation,  and  the  close  study  of  Nature,  will 
teach  us  to  know  better.  The  unskilful  observer  may  not  see  with  the  acute  discernment  of  the 
artist  5 although  he  may  not  look  so  closely  to  causes,  he  at  least  feels  their  effects  5 and  the  art 
that  does  not  correspond  to  the  general  impressions  of  Nature — that  can  not  be  realized  by  the 
imagination — that  appeals  to  it  in  unrecognised  language  — must  ever  fail  in  all  high  purposes, 
and  receive  but  limited  acceptation. 

25.  A custom,  which  prevails  to  some  extent,  of  making  elaborated  cartoons  foi  paintings  m 
oil,  however  it  may  afford  many  considerations  of  advantage  in  respect  to  the  perfection  of  their 
design  and  composition  5 yet,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  if  the  study  of  Nature  be  confined  to  mere 
form,  and  light  and  shade,  their  employment  may  have  many  misleading  tendencies.  The  best 
tests  of  all  methods  are  results  arising  therefrom  ; and  it  must  be  admitted  that  where  the  cartoon 
has  formed  the  chief  study  and  effort  of  the  artist,  the  finished  work  rarely  possesses  the  excellence 
of  color  of  those  executed  directly  from  Nature,  or  from  studies  made  therein.  They  are,  in  truth, 
often  little  more  than  tinted  drawings.  Could  there  be  discovered  in  their  excellency,  either  of 
design,  composition,  or  other  attributes,  any  one  quality  exclusively  attainable  by  a method  which, 
if  not  discarding,  at  least  places  in  secondary  consideration,  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  important 
means  of  expression  in  art  — could  it  be  shown  that  all  they  possess  might  not  be  attained  with 
the  addition  of  truth  and  effectiveness  of  color — we  might  feel  less  hesitation  in  expressing  an 
opinion  adverse  to  a custom  supported  by  high  authority  — the  authority,  however,  less  of  success- 
ful achievement  than  of  arbitrary  schools.  However  true  it  may  be  that  such  may  have  been  the 
practice  of  some  of  the  most  famous  masters  of  art,  it  arose  in  a great  measure  from  the  peculiar 
nature  and  requirements  of  their  works.  For  fresco,  cartoons  are  absolutely  necessary.  When 
it  can  be  shown,  in  evidence  of  their  advantages  for  works  in  oil,  that  the  oil-pictures  of  Titian, 
Paul  Veronese,  Correggio,  Raphael,  and  others  of  the  Italians  — with  Rubens,  Vandyke,  Rem- 
brandt, and  many  more  of  the  Flemish  — and  such  as  Velasquez  and  Murillo  of  the  Spanish 
schools  — are  but  indirect  translations  of  Nature,  through  the  comparatively  dead  language  of 
black  and  white  drawings — that  to  the  cartoon  we  must  look  for  the  secret  of  their  excellence  — 


COMPOSITION. 


299 


when  the  advocates  of  the  system  produce  by  such  means  equal  results,  we  may  more  reasonably 
dismiss  our  doubts  of  its  advantages. 

It  does  not  follow  of  necessity  that  the  employment  of  a cartoon,  as  a preparatory  study  of 
compositions  for  painting,  should  lead  to  injurious  tendencies.  It  is  the  abuse  of  and  too  great 
reliance  upon  the  practice  against  which  we  desire  to  guard  the  student.  There  is,  in  the  execu- 
tion of  every  original  work,  a story  of  incident  and  exciting  experiment  — a trial  of  strength,  as  it 
were,  between  Art  and  Nature  — constituting  the  intimate  and  fascinating  association  between  the 
author  and  his  labors,  which  awakens  and  sustains  that  intensity  of  interest  which  expands  to 
ardent  love  of  his  pursuits,  and  impresses  the  individuality  of  the  artist’s  mind  and  character  upon 
all  that  emanates  from  his  hand.  It  is  this  that,  while  it  gives  impulse,  lightens  every  labor,  and 
without  which  the  practice  of  art  becomes  reduced  to  a comparatively  mere  manual  operation. 
The  importance  of  cherishing  this  freshness  of  feeling,  and  sympathy  between  the  artist  and  his 
creation,  as  well  as  the  delightful  association  with  Nature  to  which  they  direct,  are  obviously  of 
value,  not  only  as  affecting  the  consolations  and  delight  by  which  his  executive  labors  are  inspir- 
ited, but  also  most  materially  the  perfection  of  his  work.  Such  impulses  are  but  partially 
realized  by  the  mere  copyist ; and  hence  a copy,  or  even  a repetition  of  a work  by  its  author, 
rarely  embodies  the  sentiment  and  expressiveness  of  an  original  production.  To  exhaust,  there- 
fore, the  study  and  interest  of  a composition  upon  a cartoon  in  black  and  white,  and  to  leave  its 
completion  in  color  to  conventional  and  minor  considerations,  must  inevitably  injuriously  affect  its 
perfection  in  that  respect. 

The  custom,  common  with  many,  of  preparing  their  compositions  by  carefully-studied  indica- 
tions thereof  in  two  colors,  as  groundwork  for  their  pictures,  while  it  may  answer  in  every  impor- 
tant practical  point  the  requirement  or  service  of  a cartoon,  obviates  many  of  the  objections  which 
may  be  urged  against  its  employment  as  the  established  premises  of  composition  for  paintings, 
especially  in  oil.  Unfinished  works  of  many  masters  distinguished  for  both  design  and  color,  as 
well  as  documentary  evidence  to  that  effect,  fully  sustain  a favorable  opinion  of  this  method. 

26.  Some  artists  carry  out  their  preparatory  studies  to  a still  further  extent,  and  not  only  make 
them  in  color  — arrange  their  general  composition  by  cartoons,  and  execute  their  finished  works 
directly  from  Nature — but  also  prepare  wax  or  clay  models  of  important  groups  and  masses,  and 
sometimes  even  of  the  whole,  which  they  arrange  under  all  the  circumstances  of  light  and  shadow, 
color  and  effect,  in  conformity  to  their  design.  The  practice  of  thus  employing  artificial  models 
has  not  been  confined  to  works  of  a high  historic  character  (chap,  x.,  3),  by  which  great  assistance 
may  be  received  in  the  management  of  bold  fore-shortenings  and  strong  effects  of  light  and  shadow 


— which  often,  especially  in  mural  paintings,  may  be  required  to  be  adapted  to  a position  in  which 
a peculiar  effect  of  light  may  require  to  be  preserved  — as,  for  example,  beneath  a dome,  and  in 
many  other  cases — but  also  in  smaller  works.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  capacity  to 
make  available  all  expedients  that  can  be  employed  to  aid  in  the  perfection  of  a work  of  art  have 
been  so  repeatedly  alluded  to,  that  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  press  its  importance  further.  Those 
who  seek  with  earnestness  the  means  by  which  excellence  may  be  reached,  will  find  by  trial  the 
value  of  their  possession,  and  will  never  regret  the  pains  by  which  it  has  been  obtained. 

27.  The  diversity  of  methods  employed  by  the  masters  of  art,  and  their  successful  application 
by  them,  render  it  difficult  to  form  an  opinion  of  preference  to  one  over  another.  That  which 
may  have  succeeded  most  effectively  in  the  hands  of  one  may  in  those  of  another  prove  both  em- 
barrassing and  inefficient ; and  the  student  should  rather  seek  to  adapt  his  methods  to  his  pecu- 
liar capacity  and  requirements,  than  to  endeavor  to  force  upon  himself  implicit  compliance  with 
any  one  which  may  not  be  fully  adequate  to  this  only  practical  end  of  any  process  or  method,  how- 
ever it  may  be  recommended  by  high  authority.  Many  are  induced,  from  the  successful  results 
attained  by  certain  methods  and  processes,  not  only  to  attach  thereto  undue  importance,  to  the 
neglect  of  more  essential  requisitions  ; while  others  too  often  waste,  not  only  many  precious  years, 
but  the  best  part  of  a life,  in  profitless  experiment  therewith. 

28.  As  to  appropriateness  of  manner,  or  style  of  execution,  in  a picture,  as  in  any  other  work 
of  art,  it  is  difficult  to  form  a definite  conclusion.  “ Style  in  painting  is  the  same  as  in  writing — a 
power  over  materials,  whether  words  or  colors,  by  which  conceptions  or  sentiments  are  conveyed” 
— and  is  marked  with  the  individuality  and  character  of  the  artist’s  mind  and  impulses.  A bold 
mind  impels  a daring  hand,  which  finds  its  means  of  expression  in  a bold  and  dashing  touch  5 while 
the  more  gentle  and  timid  is  as  clearly  indicated  by  its  manner.  The  ambition  of  either  to  cast 
aside  its  peculiarities,  or  to  assume  those  of  the  other,  is  rarely  effectual  5 and,  as  these  peculiarities 
often  constitute,  in  a very  great  degree,  the  source  of  individual  strength,  it  is  far  more  wise  to 
seek  to  train  them  in  a way  in  which  they  may  be  more  easily,  because  more  naturally,  directed 
to  the  attainment  of  excellence,  than  to  attempt  to  force  them  into  a contrary  course.  The  dis- 
covery, therefore,  of  the  most  available  sources  of  individual  strength,  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and,  as  it  is  often  reached  only  by  many  trials  and  repeated  failures,  an  early  beginning  is  the 
more  advisable.  Thus  the  natural  and  most  available  impulses  and  capacity  of  the  learner  are 
allowed  fairer  opportunity  of  timely  development,  and,  if  not  injudiciously  restrained,  will  of  them- 
selves most  likely  direct  to  a course  for  which  they  are  most  aptly  and  congenially  adapted,  and 


COMPOSITION. 


301 


which  may  frequently  require  no  small  degree  of  courage  and  resolution  steadily  to  pursue  when 
discovered.  Those  who  possess  most  sincerity  and  spirit  of  impartial  investigation  of  their  own 
qualifications,  are  not  unfrequently  most  apt  to  undervalue  their  own  peculiar  endowments,  and, 
in  seeking  the  rivalry  of  qualities  which  they  perceive  and  value  in  others,  most  culpably  to  neglect 
the  cultivation  of  such  as  they  themselves  may  possess. 

29.  The  examples  of  the  great  masters  of  art  show  most  clearly  that  it  was  not  by  striving  to 
imitate  the  excellences  of  others,  but  by  making  them  available  to  the  development,  cultivation, 
and  perfection  of  their  own,  that  they  most  successfully  appropriated  them  to  their  individual  ad- 
vantage. It  was  fairly  done ; for  it  was  with  them  no  base  pilfering  of  other  men’s  ideas,  discov- 
eries, or  rewards  of  labor.  That  which  they  took  they  gave  back  with  interest  ; thus  often  rescuing 
from  oblivion  happy  suggestions,  slightly  valued  or  perhaps  overlooked  even  by  those  with  whom 
they  may  have  originated.  To  this  end  they  also  looked  to  Nature,  and  sought  not  only  verifica- 
tion of  the  truthfulness  and  practicability  of  their  peculiar  impulses,  but  also  aid  to  realize  them 
by  their  art.  Promptly,  now  as  then,  Nature  will  be  found  to  respond  to  every  requirement  of  true 
genius,  and  as  surely  to  rebuke  the  affectation  and  inconsistencies  of  unwarrantable  pretension. 

We  see,  in  the  successful  daring  of  Michael  Angelo,  the  predominance  of  an  original  and 
colossal  mind,  bending  all  Nature  as  well  as  all  hitherto-accomplished  art  to  its  mould;  while 
gentle  refinement,  purity  of  taste,  with  the  keenest  discernment  and  love  of  the  beautiful,  from  first 
to  last,  mark  all  the  inspirations  of  Raphael’s  genius.  The  lifelike  tints  of  Titian,  glowing  with 
an  individuality  of  power  and  voluptuousness  of  feeling  before  unequalled,  and  as  yet  unsurpassed, 
may  be  contrasted,  without  detriment  to  either,  with  the  soft  and  silvery  tones  of  Correggio,  har- 
monizing with  a mind  exquisitely  sensitive  to  purity  of  sentiment,  if  not  to  the  severest  types  of 
beauty  of  form.  Thus  might  we  go  on  to  name,  throughout  the  world  of  art,  both  past  and  pres- 
ent, examples  of  pre-eminence  based  upon  the  successful  cultivation  of  individuality  of  mind  and 
impulse,  not  only  sufficient  fully  to  sustain  the  opinions  advanced,  but  to  make  it  appear  unac- 
countable that  artists  have  not  been  more  generally  emulous  of  pursuing  paths  of  their  own  than 
of  endeavoring  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  others. 

It  is  very  certain  that  none  have  ever  reached  distinction  of  whom  it  can  be  justly  said  that 
such  was  their  course.  Many  may  have  received  direction,  or  have  varied  both  their  styles  of 
composition  and  manner  of  execution  from  impulses  induced  by  the  observation  and  study  of  the ' 
works  of  others;  but  this  has  always  been  most  successfully  effected  by  the  enkindling  of  a latent 
capacity  which  only  needed  thus  to  be  developed,  rather  than  by  the  desire  or  purpose  of  either 
ambitious  emulation  or  mere  servile  imitation.  In  many  cases  impulses  thus  given  have  resulted 


302 


COMPOSITION. 


in  the  perfection  of  peculiarities  of  style  often  far  surpassing  those  whence  they  received  sug- 
gestion. 

The  history  of  the  difficulties,  disappointments,  and  success  of  all  artists,  invariably  points  to 
«he  importance  of  a good  beginning.  Many  may  have  fortunately  received  this  induction  from 
early  associations,  or  judicious  direction  5 while  others,  who  have  started  upon  the  strong  impulses 
of  great  natural  abilities  and  energy  of  character,  without  it,  have  been  driven  to  the  painful  and 
mortifying  necessity  of  retracing  their  steps,  fairly  back  to  the  beginning,  whence  they  should  have 
derived  their  reliable  strength  to  have  borne  them  onward  successfully.  Bolder  spirits,  with  a de- 
termination worthy  of  a better  fate,  have  battled  through  life  in  accumulated  difficulties  to  its  close 5 
while  others,  lacking  the  courage  to  grapple  therewith,  and  industry  required  to  surmount  the 
obstacles  common  to  all  beginners,  have  vainly  exhausted  more  toil  for  the  discovery  of  easy  ways 
than  would  have  secured  to  them  available  strength  and  capacity  if  judiciously  directed. 

It  is  not  alone  by  the  study  of  the  works  of  other  artists  that  the  student  may  reap  advantage, 
but  also  from  their  biographies  gather  much  that,  may  be  valuable  and  suggestive  for  self-direction. 
Familiarity  with  the  difficulties  with  which  they  have  contended  will  make  lighter  the  burden  of 
his  own  5 and  in  the  perseverance  and  industry,  the  singleness  of  purpose,  and  love  of  their  voca- 
tion, which  mark  their  careers,  he  will  be  ever  reminded  of  the  only  reliable  means  by  which  his 
own  hopes  of  success  can  be  realized. 

30.  In  directing  the  attention  of  the  student  to  the  value  of  study  of  works  of  art  in  connexion 
with  that  of  Nature,  a necessity  of  seeking  them  out  of  our  own  country  does  not  follow.  How- 
ever there  may  not  exist  at  present  in  America  such  extensive  galleries  and  collections  of  standard 
works,  both  ancient  and  modern,  as  may  be  found  in  Europe,  there  are  sufficient  to  meet  far  more 
than  the  requirements  of  a beginner,  and  quite  enough  of  living,  productive  talent  to  give  both 
impulse  and  direction.  This  once  secured  upon  a basis  of  proper  training  in  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  and  practical  familiarity  with  the  leading  principles  of  design — and,  further,  with  capacity 
exercised  and  expanded  to  original  production — it  may  be  then  time  enough  to  seek  abroad  for 
more  ample  sources  of  knowledge  and  higher  examples  of  art  than  can  be  found  at  home. 

Let  not  the  American  boy  who  aspires  to  attainment  in  art  beyond  that  of  a mere  accomplish- 
ment or  accessory  to  the  various  purposes  and  pursuits  of  life  in  which  it  may  be  available,  be 
disheartened  by  the  imaginary  want  of  facilities  placing  him  at  insurmountable  disadvantages  in 
comparison  with  the  art-student  abroad.  It  is  an  illusion  that  should  be  dispelled.  The  advan- 
tages of  foreign  study,  until  a certain  period  of  advancement  has  been  attained,  are  very  doubtful. 
It  is  at  least  certain  that  one  who  has  not  mastered  the  first  practical  difficulties  of  a beginner  — 


CONCLUSION. 


303 


whose  impulses  have  not  been  sufficiently  matured  to  enable  him  to  do  so  with  well-understood  pur- 
pose, and  with  a distinct  comprehension  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  his  requirements,  and  who  is 
not  capable,  to  a very  great  degree,  of  self-direction  in  their  attainment  — has  still  much  to  acquire 
before  he  is  prepared  to  go  abroad.  All  this,  and  more,  he  can  as  well,  if  not  better,  obtain  at 
home.  Profusion  of  facility  in  the  beginning,  however  more  smooth  and  easy  may  be  made  the 
w ay  of  the  learner  thereby,  may  still,  for  that  very  reason,  have  very  doubtful  tendencies.  There 
are  periods  of  childhood  and  youth  in  art  to  be  passed  through,  in  which  the  strength  and  stamina 
requisite  to  assume  a position  of  manhood  must  be  gradually  attained,  and  home  is  the  place,  above 
all  others,  where  it  is  best  and  most  healthfully  secured.  From  the  Nature  we  have  first  learned 
to  love,  and  which  has  taught  us  to  love  art,  and  from  our  native  land  with  all  its  associations,  we 
should  derive  our  impulses.  That  early  association  and  familiarity  with  high  artistic  achievement, 
and  the  most  unlimited  profusion  of  facility  for  study,  do  not  necessarily  constitute  the  generating 
elements  of  genius,  may  be  profitably  considered  in  the  fact  that  Rome,  to  which  all  youthful 
artists  look  with  such  ardent  longing,  foster-mother  as  she  has  been  of  so  many  men  of  exalted 
genius  in  art,  can  not  claim  one  among  them  all,  and  boast  that  “ he  was  a Roman.” 

31.  It  is  not  alone  in  pictures  and  statues,  stately  domes  and  high  achievements,  that  either 
the  impulses  or  evidences  of  the  existence  and  influence  of  taste  for  art  are  to  be  discovered,  but 
in  its  broader  and  more  general  diffusion,  germinating  beneath  the  sheltering  influences  of  these 
its  loftier  monuments,  and  scattering  far  and  wide  its  seeds  of  usefulness.  The  gift  comes  to  us  as 
blessed  sunshine  in  the  world’s  weary  w ay  $ purifying  in  its  influences,  it  reaches  the  perfection  of 
all  our  resources  of  comfort  as  well  as  of  our  pleasures  and  consolations. 

In  aw  akening  mankind  to  a sense  of  the  importance  of  its  cultivation  as  a requirement  in  popu- 
lar education — in  making  its  advantages  accessible  to  all — it  should  be  regarded  as  a matter 
touching  the  interest  of  every  one.  It  extends  its  aid  to  the  philanthropist  in  works  of  blessed 
charity  and  mercy  $ it  gives  to  the  public  teacher  the  means  of  developing  more  perfectly  the 
resources  of  the  youthful  mind  and  of  directing  it  in  ways  best  suited  to  its  natural  endowments — 
developing  light  by  such  happy  adaptation,  where  otherwise  might  exist  but  darkness — an  immor- 
tal mind  benighted  by  diversion  of  its  capacities  from  their  true  direction. 

To  teachers,  above  all  others,  we  appeal  in  behalf  of  those  under  their  charge.  That  which 
we  want  most  is  the  general  introduction  of  draw  ing  in  our  schools  5 not  as  an  accomplish- 
ment for  a few,  but  for  all.  We  want  not  draw'ing-masters  to  be  sent  for  at  the  last  moment  of 
giving  the  finishing  touches  to  fashionable  education,  by  a course  of  u twelve  lessons  of  an  hour 
each but  we  want  our  children,  of  all  classes,  to  be  indulged  in  the  inclination  that  God  has 


304 


CONCLUSION. 


implanted  in  their  natures, to  be  encouraged  and  to  be  assisted.  If  the  work  be  begun  in  time,  it 
will  be  found  as  easy  as  to  teach  them  to  read  and  write  and  cipher.  The  benefits  you  will 
thereby  confer  on  those  for  whose  direction  in  the  ways  of  practical  knowledge,  and  for  the  devel- 
opment of  whose  capacities  for  usefulness  to  themselves  and  to  their  country,  you  are  respon- 
sible, require  it  at  your  hands.  Do  it  with  steadiness  of  purpose  and  perseverance,  and  the  result 
will  prove  that  there  is  no  affectation  in  the  earnestness  with  which  this  appeal  :s  made  to  you. 
Give  our  children  but  the  benefit  of  this  starting-point,  and  our  men  and  women  will  accomplish 
the  rest  5 and  that,  too,  without  the  aid  of  self-constituted  law-givers  in  art,  or  special  and  exclusive 
schools  to  preach  doctrines  and  dogmas  on  the  subject. 


To  exemplify  the  truth  of  the  first  line  of  our  book  has  been  our  earnest  ambition.  Many  can 
bear  witness,  by  results  attained  through  their  perseverance,  that  our  efforts  have  not  been  in  vain. 
Some,  we  fear,  may  have  been  disappointed  to  find  the  requirement  of  exertion  on  their  part  greater 
than  they  either  expected  or  were  willing  to  bestow.  To  the  latter  we  have  only  to  express  our 
sincere  regret  for  what  they  have  lost,  with  the  earnest  hope  that  they  may  think  better  of  it  and 
renew  the  trial.  To  the  former  we  give  our  hand,  with  a brother-artist’s  warmest  pressure,  and 
bid  them  “God-speed”  in  their  future  efforts.  May  we  live  to  learn  of  them! 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


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